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Psychology and behaviors
The stalker will often derogate the victim which reduces them to an object. This allows the stalker to feel angry at them without experiencing empathy, or feel they are entitled to behave as they please toward the victim. Viewing the victim as "lesser," "weak" or otherwise seriously flawed can support delusions that the victim needs to be rescued, or punished, by the stalker. They may slander or defame the character of the victim which helps to isolate them and give the stalker more control, or a feeling of power. Stalkers may use manipulative behavior such as bringing legal action against the victim, or threatening to commit suicide in order to coerce the victim to intervene - all methods of forcing the victim to have contact with the stalker. Stalkers may use threats and violence to frighten the victim. They may engage in vandalism and property damage (usually to the victim's car or domicile). They may use physical attacks that leave abrasions and bruises which are mostly meant to frighten. Less common are physical attacks that leave serious physical injuries, or sexual assaults.[1] Gender Studies in Stalking PathologyStalkers are generally male, but not exclusively. The demographic characteristics and psychiatric status of male and female stalkers do not differ, except that male stalkers are more likely to have a history of criminal offenses and substance abuse. The duration of the time invested in stalking and the frequency of associated violence were equivalent between male and female stalkers. Women are more likely to target someone they have known such as a professional contact and rarely target strangers. Both male and female stalkers are more likely to target females than males. Men, very rarely target other men.[4] [5] In "A Study of Women Who Stalk", by Purcell, Pathé and Mullen, the authors concluded that the two major psychiatric variables that differentiate female from male stalkers is motivation for stalking and choice of victim. Female stalkers seek intimacy with the victim, who usually is someone already known. The victim is most often chosen from those who assume a professional role of helper. This could be a doctor or nurse, a therapist or counselor. Context was found to differ, but the conclusion was the intrusiveness and harmfulness did not. Female stalkers are potentially as dangerous as any male stalker.[4] Types of stalkers (individual)Psychologists tend to group individuals who stalk into two categories: psychotic and nonpsychotic. Many stalkers have pre-existing psychotic disorders such as delusional disorder, schizoaffective disorder, or schizophrenia. Most stalkers are nonpsychotic and exhibit disorders such as major depression, adjustment disorder, or substance dependence, as well as a variety of Axis II personality disorders, such as antisocial, avoidant, borderline, dependent, narcissistic, or paranoia. The nonpsychotic stalkers' pursuit of victims can be influenced by various psychological factors, including anger and hostility, projection of blame, obsession, dependency, minimization and denial, and jealousy. [6] In "A Study of Stalkers," Mullen et al (2000) [7] [5] identify six types of stalkers:
Many stalkers fit categories with paranoia disorders. Intimacy-seeking stalkers often have delusional disorders that are secondary to preexisting psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. With rejected stalkers, the continual clinging to a relationship of an inadequate or dependent person couples with the entitlement of the narcissistic personality, and the persistent jealousy of the paranoid personality. In contrast, resentful stalkers demonstrate an almost “pure culture of persecution,” with delusional disorders of the paranoid type, paranoid personalities, and paranoid schizophrenia. [7] Types of stalkers (organisations)Gang/terrorist stalking is a form of specialized covert criminal harassment in which groups aimed at accomplishing a political/religious/social agenda persistently harass an individual victim or entity in attacks of coordinated violence.[1]Typically deployed by extremist and hate groups, organized stalkers repeatedly carry out calculated, planned attacks upon a non-military target utilizing guerrilla type warfare tactics and paramilitary strategies. Methods of criminal harassment include unauthorized, constant surveillance, psychological harassment including threats of violence, and may culminate in physical assaults and even murder. Unlawful intrusions are relentlessly perpetrated in an attempt to do harm, infringe upon civil liberties, deprive the target of human rights, and destroy the life of the victim. Many terrorist stalkers rely heavily upon forced stress, threats of violence, and cruel, inhuman treatment to terrorize the victim in an attempt to circumvent laws which focus primarily on physical injury to the victim. However, findings in a March 2007 report published in one of the Journal of American Medical Association Archives show that distress and suffering related to "psychological manipulations do not appear to be substantially different from physical torture."[2] Laws on stalkingThe first state to criminalise stalking in the United States is California enacted in 1990[8] due to several high profile stalking cases in California, including the 1982 attempted murder of actress Theresa Saldana[9], the 1988 massacre by Richard Farley[10], the 1989 murder of actress Rebecca Schaeffer[11], and five Orange County stalking murders in 1990.[12][10] The first anti-stalking law in the United States, California Penal Code Section 646.9, was developed and proposed by Municipal Court Judge John Watson of Orange County. Watson with U.S. Congressman Ed Royce introduced the law in 1990. [12][13] Within three years[12] thereafter, every state in the United States and some other common-law jurisdictions followed suit to create the crime of stalking, under different names such as criminal harassment or criminal menace. The Driver's Privacy Protection Act (DPPA) was enacted in 1994 in response to numerous cases of a driver's information being abused for criminal activity, examples such as the Saldana and Schaeffer stalking cases.[14][15] The DPPA prohibits states from disclosing a driver's personal information without consent by State Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV). Laws against stalking in different jurisdictions vary, and so do the definitions. Some make the act illegal as it stands, while others do only if the stalking becomes threatening or endangers the receiving end. In England and Wales, liability may arise in the event that the victim suffers either mental or physical harm as a result of being stalked (see R. v. Constanza). Many states in the US also recognize stalking as grounds for issuance of a civil restraining order. Since this requires a lower burden of proof than a criminal charge, laws recognizing non-criminal allegations of stalking suffer the same risk of abuse seen with false allegations of domestic violence.[citation needed] Section 264 of the Criminal Code of Canada, titled "criminal harassment" [16] addresses acts which are termed "stalking" in many other jurisdictions. The provisions of the section came into force in August of 1993 with the intent of further strengthening laws protecting women. [17] It is a hybrid offence, which may be punishable upon summary conviction or as an indictable offence, the latter of which which may carry a prison term of up to ten years. Section 264 has withstood Charter challenges [18]. In 2000, Japan enacted a national law to combat this behaviour. Acts of stalking can be viewed as "interfering [with] the tranquility of others' lives", and are prohibited under petty offence laws. In China, stalking has been expressly forbidden since 1987 (now replaced by a new law, with similar substance),[citation needed] as in the context of organised crimes suppression, under Macau's laws.[citation needed] Effects of stalkingStalking does not consist of single incidents, but is a continuous process. Stalking can be a terrifying experience for victims, placing them at risk of psychological trauma, and possible physical harm. As Rokkers writes, "Stalking is a form of mental assault, in which the perpetrator repeatedly, unwantedly, and disruptively breaks into the life-world of the victim, with whom he has no relationship (or no longer has)....Moreover, the separated acts that make up the intrusion cannot by themselves cause the mental abuse, but do taken together (cumulative effect)."[2] On a victim's mental and emotional health
On a victim’s physiological healthStalking has effects on a victim’s physiological health.[3][19][20]
What to do about stalkingIt is very important to save any letters, taped answering machine messages/photos/video recordings, gifts, police reports, or medical reports pertaining to the stalking. The written documentation and physical evidence will help to establish a pattern of behavior and verification of the stalking events. Source (http://onour.com/stalking/index.htm) For further reading
Stalking in media and literature
See also
References
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