Sewage treatment

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Sewage treatment, or domestic wastewater treatment, is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater, both runoff and domestic. It includes physical, chemical and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce a wastestream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste or sludge also suitable for discharge or reuse back into the environment. This material is often inadvertently contaminated with toxic organic and inorganic compounds.

Sewage is created by residences, institutions, and commercial and industrial establishments. It can be treated close to where it is created (in septic tanks or onsite package plants and other aerobic treatment systems), or collected and transported via a network of pipes and pump stations to a municipal treatment plant (see Sewerage and pipes and infrastructure). Sewage collection and treatment is typically subject to local, state and federal regulations and standards (regulation and controls). Industrial sources of wastewater often require specialized treatment processes (see Industrial wastewater treatment).

Typically, sewage treatment involves three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary treatment. First, the solids are separated from the wastewater stream. Then dissolved biological matter is progressively converted into a solid mass by using indigenous, water-borne bacteria. Finally, the biological solids are neutralized then disposed of or re-used, and the treated water may be disinfected chemically or physically (for example by lagooning and micro-filtration). The final effluent can be discharged into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf course, greenway or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge.

Contents 1 Description 2 Treatment stages 2.1 Primary treatment 2.1.1 Influx (influent) and removal of large objects 2.1.2 Sand and grit removal 2.1.3 Screening and maceration (raw sewage pumping) 2.1.4 Sedimentation 2.1.5 Activated sludge 2.1.6 Filter beds (oxidising beds) 2.1.7 Biological aerated filters 2.1.8 Membrane biological reactors 2.1.9 Secondary sedimentation 2.1.10 Rotating Biological Contactors 2.2 Tertiary treatment 2.2.1 Filtration 2.2.2 Lagooning 2.2.3 Constructed wetlands 2.2.4 Waste removal 2.2.4.1 Nitrogen removal 2.2.4.2 Phosphorus removal 2.2.5 Disinfection 3 Package plants and batch reactors 4 Sludge treatment and disposal 4.1 Anaerobic digestion 4.2 Aerobic digestion 4.3 Composting 4.4 Thermal depolymerization 4.5 Sludge disposal 5 Treatment in the receiving environment 6 Sewage treatment in developing countries 6.1 Benefits of wastewater treatment compared to benefits of sewage collection in developing countries 7 Line note references 8 See also 9 External links

Description

Raw Influent (Sewage) is the liquid waste from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks etc. Household waste that is disposed of via sewers. In many areas sewage also includes some liquid waste from industry and commerce. In the UK, the waste from toilets is termed foul waste, the waste from items such as basins, baths, kitchens is termed sullage water, and the industrial and commercial waste is termed trade waste.

The division of household water drains into greywater and blackwater is becoming more common in the developed world, with greywater being permitted to be used for watering plants or recycled for flushing toilets. A lot of sewage also includes some surface water from roofs or hard-standing areas. Municipal wastewater therefore includes residential, commercial, and industrial liquid waste discharges, and may include stormwater runoff. Sewage systems capable of handling stormwater are known as combined systems. Such systems are usually avoided since they complicate and thereby reduce the efficiency of sewage treatment plants owing to their seasonality. In addition, heavy storms may overwhelm the sewage treatment system, causing a spill or overflow. It is preferable to have a separate storm drain system for stormwater.

The construction of combined sewers is a less common practice in the United States and Canada than in the past and is no longer accepted within building regulations in the UK and other European countries. Instead, liquid waste and stormwater are collected and conveyed in separate sewer systems, referred to as sanitary sewers and storm sewers in the U.S. and as foul sewers and surface water sewers in the UK. Overflows from foul sewers designed to relieve pressure from heavy rainfall are termed storm sewers or combined sewer overflows.

As rainfall runs over the surface of roofs and the ground, it may pick up various contaminants including soil particles, (sediment), heavy metals, organic compounds, animal waste, and oil and grease. Some jurisdictions require stormwater to receive some level of treatment before being discharged directly into waterways. Examples of treatment processes used for stormwater include sedimentation basins, wetlands, and vortex separators (to remove coarse solids).

The site where the process is conducted is called a sewage treatment plant. The flow scheme of a sewage treatment plant is generally the same for all countries:

• Mechanical treatment;

Influx (Influent)

Removal of large objects

Removal of sand and grit

Pre-precipitation

• Biological treatment;

Oxidation bed (oxidizing bed) or aeration system

Post precipitation

Effluent

• Chemical treatment (this step is usually combined with settling and other processes to remove solids, such as filtration. The combination is referred to in the US as physical-chemical treatment.).

Treatment stages

Typical Process Flow Diagram

Image:ESQUEMPEQUE-EN.jpg

Primary treatment

Primary treatment is to reduce oils, grease, fats, sand, grit, and coarse (settleable) solids. This step is done entirely with machinery, hence the name mechanical treatment.

Influx (influent) and removal of large objects

In the mechanical treatment, the influx (influent) of sewage water is strained to remove all large objects that are deposited in the sewer system, such as rags, sticks, condoms, sanitary towels (sanitary napkins) or tampons, cans, fruit, etc. This is most commonly done with a manual or automated mechanically raked screen. This type of waste is removed because it can damage the sensitive equipment in the sewage treatment plant.

Sand and grit removal

This stage typically includes a sand or grit channel where the velocity of the incoming wastewater is carefully controlled to allow sand grit and stones to settle but still maintain the majority of the organic material within the flow. This equipment is called a detritor or sand catcher. Sand grit and stones need to be removed early in the process to avoid damage to pumps and other equipment in the remaining treatment stages. Sometimes there is a sand washer (grit classifier) followed by a conveyor that transports the sand to a container for disposal. The contents from the sand catcher may be fed into the incinerator in a sludge processing plant, but in many cases, the sand and grit is sent to a land-fill.

Screening and maceration (raw sewage pumping)

The grit free liquid is then passed through fixed or rotating screens to remove floating and larger material such as rags and smaller particulates such as peas and corn. Screenings are collected and may be returned to the sludge treatment plant or may be disposed of off site by landfilling or incineration. Maceration, in which solids are cut into small particles through the use of rotating knife edges mounted on a revolving cylinder, is used in plants that are able to process this particulate waste.

Sedimentation

Many plants have a sedimentation stage where the sewage is allowed to pass slowly through large tanks, commonly called "primary clarifiers" or "primary sedimentation tanks". The tanks are large enough that faecal solids can settle and floating material such as grease and plastics can rise to the surface and be skimmed off. The main purpose of the primary stage is to produce a generally homogeneous liquid capable of being treated biologically and a sludge that can be separately treated or processed. Primary settlement tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank from where it can be pumped to further sludge treatment stages.

Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content of the sewage such as are derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent. The majority of municipal and industrial plants treat the settled sewage liquor using aerobic biological processes. For this to be effective, the biota require both _O and a substrate on which to live. There are number of ways in which this is done. In all these methods, the bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed film or suspended growth, such as rock filters where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface. In suspended growth systems - such as activated sludge - the biomass is well mixed with the sewage & can be operated in a smaller space than fixed film systems that treat the same amount of water. However, fixed film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids than suspended growth systems.

Roughing filters are intended to treat particularly strong or variable organic loads, typically industrial, to allow them to then be treated by conventional secondary treatment processes.Characteristics include typically tall, circular filters filled with open synthetic filter media to which sewage is applied at a relatively high rate. Designed to allow high hydraulic loading and a high flow-through of air. On larger installations, air is forced through the media using blowers. The resultant liquor is usually within the normal range for conventional treatment processes.

Activated sludge

Activated sludge plants use a variety of mechanisms and processes to use dissolved oxygen to promote the growth of biological floc that substantially removes organic material. It also traps particulate material and can, under ideal conditions, convert ammonia to nitrite and nitrate ultimately to nitrogen gas, (see also denitrification).

Filter beds (oxidising beds)

In older plants and plants receiving more variable loads, trickling filter beds are used where the settled sewage liquor is spread onto the surface and of a deep bed made up of coke (carbonised coal), limestone chips or specially fabricated plastic media. Such media must have high surface areas to support the biofilms that form. The liquor is distributed through perforated rotating arms radiating from a central pivot. The distributed liquor trickles through this bed and is collected in drains at the base. These drains also provide a source of air which percolates up through the bed, keeping it aerobic. Biological films of bacteria, protozoa and fungi form on the media’s surfaces and eat or otherwise reduce the organic content. This biofilm is grazed by insect larvae and worms which help maintain an optimal thickness. Overloading of beds increases the thickness of the film leading to clogging of the filter media and ponding on the surface.

Biological aerated filters

Biological Aerated (or Anoxic) Filter (BAF) combines filtration with biological carbon reduction, nitrification or denitrification. BAF usually includes a reactor filled with a filter media. The media is either in suspension or supported by a gravel layer at the foot of the filter. The dual purpose of this media is to support highly active biomass that is attached to it and to filter suspended solids. Carbon reduction and ammonia conversion occurs in aerobic mode and sometime achieved in a single reactor while nitrate conversion occurs in anoxic mode. BAF is operated either in upflow or downflow configuration depending on design specified by manufacturer.

Membrane biological reactors

Membrane biological reactors (MBR) combines activated sludge treatment with a membrane liquid-soild separation process. The membrane component utilizes low pressure microfiltration or ultra filtration membranes and eliminates the need for clarifaction and tertiary filtration. The limitation of MBR systems is directly proportional to nutrient reduction efficiency of the activated sludge process. The cost of building and operating a MBR is usually higher than conventional wastewater treatment. However, in developed urban areas where the footprint of the treatment plant is considered a limiting factor MBR Facilities can be considered a desirable option.

Secondary sedimentation

The final step in the secondary treatment stage is to settle out the biological floc or filter material and produce sewage water containing very low levels of organic material and suspended matter.

Rotating Biological Contactors

Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) are mechanical secondary treatment systems, which are robust and capable of withstanding surges in organic load. RBC's were first installed in Germany in 1960 and have since been developed and refined into a reliable operating unit. The rotating disks support the growth of bacteria and micro-organisms present in the sewage, which breakdown and stabilise organic pollutants. To be successful, micro-organisms need both oxygen to live and food to grow. Oxygen is obtained from the atmosphere as the disks rotate. As the micro-organisms grow, they build up on the media until they are sloughed off due to shear forces provided by the rotating discs in the sewage.

Effluent from the RBC is then passed through final clarifiers where the micro-organisms in suspension settle as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn from the clarifier for further treatment.

Tertiary treatment

Tertiary treatment provides a final stage to raise the effluent quality to the standard required before it is discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, lake, ground, etc.) More than one tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is always the final process. It is also called "effluent polishing".

Filtration

Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. Filtration over activated carbon removes residual toxins.

Lagooning

Lagooning provides settlement and further biological improvement through storage in large man-made ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are highly aerobic and colonization by native macrophytes, especially reeds, is often encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as Daphnia and species of Rotifera greatly assist in treatment by removing fine particulates.

Constructed wetlands

Constructed wetlands include engineered reedbeds and a range of similar methodologies, all of which provide a high degree of aerobic biological improvement and can often be used instead of secondary treatment for small communities, also see phytoremediation. One example is a small reedbed used to clean the drainage from the elephants' enclosure at Chester Zoo in England.

Waste removal

Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release to the environment can lead to a build up of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may cause an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are unsustainable and eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so much of oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for the bacteria to decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins that contaminate drinking water supplies.

Different treatment processes are required to remove nitrogen and phosphorus.

Nitrogen removal

The removal of nitrogen is effected through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia (nitrification) to nitrate, followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.

Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH₃) to nitrite (NO₂⁻) is most often facillitated by Nitrosomonas spp. (nitroso=ammonium). Nitrite oxidation to nitrate (NO₃⁻), though traditionally believed to be facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. (nitro=nitrite), is now known to be facilitated in the environment almost exclusively by Nitrospira spp..

Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological communities to form. It is facillitated by a wide diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all be used to reduce nitrogen, but the activated sludge process (if designed well) can do the job the most easily. Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an electron donor is needed. This can be, depending on the wastewater, organic matter (from faeces), sulfide, or an added donor like methanol.

Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary treatment.

Phosphorus removal

Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate accumulating organisms, are selectively enriched and accumulate large quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20% of their mass). When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.

Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron (e.g. ferric chloride) or aluminum (e.g. alum). The resulting chemical sludge is difficult to handle and the added chemicals can be expensive. Despite this, chemical phosphorus removal requires significantly smaller equipment footprint than biological removal, is easier to operate and can be more reliable in areas that have wastewater compositions that make biological phosphorus removal difficult.

Disinfection

The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of wastewater is to substantially reduce the number of microorganisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental variables. Cloudy water will be treated less successfully since solid matter can shield organisms, especially from ultraviolet light or if contact times are low. Generally, short contact times, low doses and high flows all militate against effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, or ultraviolet light. Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in wastewater treatment because of its persistence.

Chlorination remains the most common form of wastewater disinfection in North America due to its low cost and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that chlorination of residual organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated, adding to the complexity and cost of treatment.

Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or other chemicals. Because no chemicals are used, the treated water's taste is more natural and pure as compared to other methods. UV radiation causes damage to the genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction. The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and replacement and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may protect microorganisms from the UV light). In the United Kingdom, light is becoming the most common means of disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and in chlorinating organics in the receiving water. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada also uses UV light for its water treatment.

Ozone O₃ is generated by passing oxygen O₂ through a high voltage potential resulting in a third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O₃. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone is generated onsite as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation equipment and the requirements for highly skilled operators.

Package plants and batch reactors

In order to use less space, treat difficult waste, deal with intermittent flow or achieve higher environmental standards, a number of designs of hybrid treatment plants have been produced. Such plants often combine all or at least two stages of the three main treatment stages into one combined stage. In the UK, where a large number of sewage treatment plants serve small populations, package plants are a viable alternative to building discrete structures for each process stage.

The most advanced packaged treatment plant according to a study done by the University of California at Davis for the California State Water Resources Control Board for treating waste and nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) in one step economically is the USBF^TM (Upflow Sludge Blanket Filter). The USBF^TM process is a modification of the conventional activated sludge process that incorporates an anoxic selector zone and an upflow sludge blanket filtration clarifier all in one integrated bioreactor vessel. The treatment includes efficient reduction of BOD5 and TSS but also biological nutrient removal (BNR) by the processes of denitrification and "biological luxury uptake".

The ensuing compact, modular system takes up less space and contains very few moving parts. The result is an efficient, highly affordable wastewater treatment plant with low maintenance and operating costs.

USBF^TM technology has no inherent capacity limits and is used in a wide range of applications from subdivisions (Bay Point, FL) resorts (Sun Peaks, BC, Kicking Horse, BC) and municipalities (Pahrump, NV), to agricultural and industrial sites. Plants can be retrofitted and expanded from existing sites reducing capital costs. Since there are no mechanical parts and no chemicals needed, operations cost are much less than sequencing batch reactor BR and membrane bio reactor MBR systems.

Another type of process which combines secondary treatment and settlement is the sequencing batch reactor (SBR). Typically, activated sludge is mixed with raw incoming sewage and mixed and aerated. The resultant mixture is then allowed to settle producing a high quality effluent. The settled sludge is run off and re-aerated before a proportion is returned to the head of the works. SBR plants are now being deployed in many parts of the world including North Liberty, Iowa, and Llanasa, North Wales.

The disadvantage of such processes is that precise control of timing, mixing and aeration is required. This precision is usually achieved by computer controls linked to many sensors in the plant. Such a complex, fragile system is unsuited to places where such controls may be unreliable, or poorly maintained, or where the power supply may be intermittent.

Package plants may be referred to as high charged or low charged. This refers to the way the biological load is processed. In high charged systems, the biological stage is presented with a high organic load and the combined floc and organic material is then oxygenated for a few hours before being charged again with a new load. In the low charged system the biological stage contains a low organic load and is combined with floculate for a relatively long time.

Sludge treatment and disposal

Main article: Sewage sludge treatment

The sludges accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a safe and effective manner. The purpose of digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and composting.

The choice of a wastewater solid treatment method depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. However, in general, composting is most often applied to smaller-scale applications followed by aerobic digestion and then lastly anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale municipal applications.

Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial process that is carried out in the absence of oxygen. The process can either be thermophilic digestion, in which sludge is fermented in tanks at a temperature of 55°C, or mesophilic, at a temperature of around 36°C. Though allowing shorter retention time (and thus smaller tanks), thermophilic digestion is more expensive in terms of energy consumption for heating the sludge.

One major feature of anaerobic digestion is the production of biogas, which can be used in generators for electricity production and/or in boilers for heating purposes.

Aerobic digestion

Aerobic digestion is a bacterial process occurring in the presence of oxygen. Under aerobic conditions, bacteria rapidly consume organic matter and convert it into carbon dioxide. The operating costs are characteristically much greater than for anaerobic digestion because of the energy costs needed to add oxygen to the process.

Composting

Composting is also an aerobic process that involves mixing the wastewater solids with sources of carbon such as sawdust, straw or wood chips. In the presence of oxygen, bacteria digest both the wastewater solids and the added carbon source and, in doing so, produce a large amount of heat.

Thermal depolymerization

Thermal depolymerization uses hydrous pyrolysis to convert reduced complex organics to oil.

Sludge disposal

When a liquid sludge is produced, further treatment may be required to make it suitable for final disposal. Typically, sludges are thickened (dewatered) to reduce the volumes transported off-site for disposal. There is no process which completely eliminates the need to dispose of biosolids.

Treatment in the receiving environment

Many processes in a wastewater treatment plant are designed to mimic the natural treatment processes that occur in the environment, whether that environment is a natural water body or the ground. If not overloaded, bacteria in the environment will consume organic contaminants, although this will reduce the levels of oxygen in the water and may significantly change the overall ecology of the receiving water. Native bacterial populations feed on the organic contaminants, and the numbers of disease-causing microorganisms are reduced by natural environmental conditions such as predation exposure to ultraviolet radiation, for example. Consequently, in cases where the receiving environment provides a high level of dilution, a high degree of wastewater treatment may not be required. However, recent evidence has demonstrated that very low levels of certain contaminants in wastewater, including hormones (from animal husbandry and residue from human birth control pills) and synthetic materials such as phthalates that mimic hormones in their action, can have an unpredictable adverse impact on the natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is re-used for drinking water[1]. In the US and EU, uncontrolled discharges of wastewater to the environment are not permitted under law, and strict water quality requirements are to be met. A significant threat in the coming decades will be the increasing uncontrolled discharges of wastewater within rapidly developing countries.

Sewage treatment in developing countries

There are few reliable figures on the share of the wastewater collected in sewers that is being treated in the world. In many developing countries the bulk of domestic and industrial wastewater is discharged without any treatment or after primary treatment only. In Latin America about 15% of collected wastewater passes through treatment plants (with varying levels of actual treatment). In Venezuela, a below average country in South America with respect to wastewater treatment, 97 percent of the country’s sewage is discharged raw into the environment^[1]. Even a highly industrialized country such as the People's Republic of China discharges about 55 percent of all sewage without treatment of any type^[2]. In a relatively developed Middle Eastern country such as Iran, Tehran's majority of population has totally untreated sewage injected to the city’s groundwater^[3]. Most of sub-Saharan Africa is without wastewater treatment.

Water utilities in developing countries are chronically underfunded because of low water tariffs, the inexistence of sanitation tariffs in many cases, low billing efficiency (i.e. many users that are billed do not pay) and poor operational efficiency (i.e. there are overly high levels of staff, there are high physical losses, and many users have illegal connections and are thus not being billed). In addition, wastewater treatment typically is the process within the utility that receives the least attention, partly because enforcement of environmental standards is poor. As a result of all these factors, operation and maintenance of many wastewater treatment plants is poor. This is evidenced by the frequent breakdown of equipment, shutdown of electrically operated equipment due to power outages or to reduce costs, and sedimentation due to lack of sludge removal. Developing countries as diverse as Egypt, Algeria, China or Colombia have invested substantial sums in wastewater treatment without achieving a significant impact in terms of environmental improvement. Even if wastewater treatment plants are properly operating, it can be argued that the environmental impact is limited in cases where the assimilative capacity of the receiving waters (ocean with strong currents or large rivers) is high, as it is often the case.

Benefits of wastewater treatment compared to benefits of sewage collection in developing countries

Waterborne diseases that are prevalent in developing countries, such as diarrhea, typhus and cholera, are caused primarily by poor hygiene practices and the absence of improved household sanitation facilities. The public health impact of the discharge of untreated wastewater is comparatively much lower. Hygiene promotion, on-site sanitation and low-cost sanitation thus are likely to have a much greater impact on public health than wastewater treatment. Given the scarcity of financial resources in developing countries and the poor track record of wastewater treatment plants, it could thus be argued that investments should first be undertaken to evacuate wastewater from human settlements and to promote good hygiene practices. Only once this has been achieved, substantial funds should be invested in wastewater treatment plants.

Line note references

See also

• Agricultural wastewater treatment
• Anaerobic digestion
• Ecological sanitation
• Hydrological transport model
• John Todd
• List of waste water treatment technologies
• Sanitary sewer overflow
• Sedimentation (water treatment)
• Select Society of Sanitary Sludge Shovelers
• Water purification
• William Lindley - pioneering 19th century engineer

Wikipedia information about Sewage treatment This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Sewage treatment". It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer). Help contribute to Americola and edit this article.