Peninsular War

Peninsular War
Part of the Napoleonic Wars
Image:Goya - Second of May 1808.jpg The Second of May, 1808: The Charge of the Mamelukes, by Francisco de Goya (1814).
Date 1808–1814 Location Spain, Portugal Result Allied victory; Peace of Fontainebleau
Combatants
Image:Spain1785.gif Spain, United Kingdom, Image:Flag Portugal (1707).svg Portugal	French Empire

The Peninsular War took place in the period of the Napoleonic Wars. An alliance of Spain, Portugal, and Britain fought the French Empire for control of the Iberian Peninsula. Also widely known as the Spanish War of Independence (Guerra de la Independencia Española) in many countries, as Guerra del Francès (War of the Frenchman) in Catalonia, and as Invasões Francesas (French Invasions) in Portugal, the war began when French armies occupied Spain in 1808 and lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814.

The Peninsular War was one of the first wars of national liberation and the first guerrilla conflict (a term coined for this war). Its course was largely dictated by Spanish irregulars and the failure of Napoleon's large armies to pacify the people of Spain.^[1] French units in Spain forcibly hugged their vulnerable supply lines, were always in danger of being cut off and overwhelmed by the partisans, and were unable to achieve decisive results.

Meanwhile, British and Portuguese armies in Portugal staged diversionary attacks to draw off French forces, preventing Napoleon's marshals from consolidating their conquests and leaving the guerrillas free to kill the occupiers.^[2] Consequently, the war has been described^{[citation needed]} as "a hammer and anvil" campaign, with the Duke of Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese army hammering the French army against the Spanish armies and guerrillas. In the final years of war, with the French seriously weakened, the Allies drove into Spain from Portugal and pursued a series of offensives that ultimately brought them to the Pyrenees and liberated the country.

The war destroyed the social and economic fabric of Portugal and Spain and ushered an era of turbulent major civil wars between Liberalism and Absolutism until 1850, led by officers trained in the Peninsular War. It also led to the independence of the former Spanish colonies of the Americas and the independence of Brazil from Portugal.

Background

In 1806 while in Berlin, Napoleon declared the Continental Blockade, forbidding British imports into continental Europe. Of the two remaining neutral countries – Sweden and Portugal – the latter tried in vain to avoid Napoleon's ultimatum. After the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807, now being freed from obligations in the east, Napoleon decided to capture the Iberian ports.

On October 27, 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807), which defined the occupation of Portugal, was signed between Spain and France. It split Portugal into three kingdoms: the new Kingdom of Northern Lusitania, the Algarve (expanded to include Alentejo), with Portugal continuing in a reduced size. In November 1807, after the refusal of Prince Regent John to join the Continental System, Napoleon sent an army into Spain under General Jean-Andoche Junot tasked with invading Portugal. At the same time, General Dupont was sent in the direction of Cadiz and Marshal Soult towards Corunna.

Two Spanish divisions joined the French troops in an attempt to occupy their rival. Spain initially requested Portugal's alliance against the incoming French armies, but later secretly agreed with France that in return for its cooperation it would receive Portugal's territories; Spain's main ambition was the seizure of the Portuguese fleet. Lisbon was captured on December 1, offering no military opposition. The Portuguese army was positioned to defend the ports and the coast from a British attack. The escape on November 29 of the Portuguese Queen and Prince Regent from the Administration and the Court (together with 6,000 people and 9,000 sailors from the fleet), enabled John VI to continue to rule over his overseas possessions, including Brazil. This was a major setback for Napoleon, who wrote in his Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène, C'est ça qui m'a perdu ("This was what destroyed me.").^{[citation needed]}

Course of the war

Invasion by stealth (February–July 1808)

Under the pretext of reinforcing the Franco-Spanish army occupying Portugal, Napoleon began filing troops into Spain, where they were greeted with enthusiasm in spite of growing diplomatic unease. In February 1808 this "invasion by stealth" swung into action; Napoleon dropped his charade and the French troops were ordered to abandon their march and seize key Spanish fortresses.^[3] Pamplona soon fell to a ruse and Barcelona followed on February 29 when a French column, disguised as a convoy of "wounded," convinced the authorities to open the city's gates.^[4]

When Brigadier Castro garrisoned the Barcelona citadel against the French, his own superiors ordered him to stand down. They were not particularly concerned about the fate of the ruling regime, nor were they in any position to fight. The Spanish Royal Army, counting only 100,000 men, stood unprepared for battle, underequipped,^[5] leaderless, paralyzed by the turmoil in the government, and scattered throughout dozens of regional posts from Portugal to the Balearic Islands. Only in far-off Galicia, under Blake and Cuesta, and in Andalusia, under Castaños, were concentrations of any size to be found. The French had seized the country by a coup de main and any hope of resisting them militarily was stillborn.

Meanwhile, Napoleon moved to secure his gains by pursuing a series of intrigues against the Spanish royal family. A Spanish coup, instigated by the aristocratic party, forced Charles IV from his throne and replaced him with his son Ferdinand. Napoleon removed the royals to Bayonne and forced them both to abdicate on May 5, giving the throne to his brother Joseph. A puppet Spanish council approved the new king, but when Joseph tried to enforce his rule in Spain, he provoked a popular uprising that would eventually spread throughout the country. Citizens of Madrid rose up in rebellion against French occupation on May 2, 1808; it took Maréchal Murat many hours and several full-scale charges from the Guard and mameluk cavalry to crush the revolt, with the loss of some 150 French soldiers slain.^[6]

The next day, immortalized by Goya as The Third of May 1808, the French army shot 5,000 Madrid citizens in retaliation. Reprisals of this kind were repeated in other cities and continued for days, with no effect but to strengthen the resistance; soon afterwards, all of Spain exploded in a bloody guerilla. Tiny Asturias cast out its French governor on May 25, rose up in arms, and, heedless of what was happening elsewhere in the country,^[7] "declared war on Napoleon at the height of his greatness."^[8] Within weeks, every Spanish province had done the same.^[9] Napoleon, unwillingly, had provoked a total war against the Spaniards, a mistake from which the French Empire would never truly recover.^[10]

As the situation deteriorated, the French responded by increasing their military commitments. In February Napoleon had boasted that 12,000 men would suffice to conquer Spain;^[11] by June, 120,000 troops had been poured into the country in an effort to control the crisis. The main French army of 80,000 men held only a narrow strip of central Spain stretching from Pamplona and San Sebastian in the north through to Madrid and Toledo to the south. The French in Madrid took shelter behind an additional 30,000 troops under Moncey.

Napoleon believed that holding on to Madrid while seizing Spain's main cities with flying columns would quickly restore the situation and quell the uprisings. Accordingly, General Dupont led 24,000 men south with Seville and Cádiz as his goal; Marshal Bessières moved into Aragon and Old Castile with 25,000 men, aiming to capture Santander with one hand and Saragossa with the other; General Moncey marched toward the Mediterranean with 10,000 men, Valencia in his sights; and General Duhesme marshalled 13,000 troops in Catalonia and put Girona under siege.^[12]

Napoleon, who had no respect whatsoever for the Spanish militias and popular levies,^[13] tried to do too much at once with too little. Signs of trouble came very quickly. Twice in June, detachments leaving Barcelona for the front encountered Catalan militia along the Bruch and were forced back with heavy casualties. After storming and sacking Cordoba, Dupont, frightened by the hostility of the Andalusians, abandoned his offensive and retired to Andujar. Girona resisted all efforts to conquer it. In Saragossa, General Palafox and the Spaniards defied the French for three months, fighting inch by inch, corps à corps, in the streets, eventually forcing the French to lift the siege and limp away in defeat. Moncey's masterful push along the coast ended in failure outside the walls of Valencia and gave way to a long retreat which proved no less impressive, but also no less futile.^[14]

Only in the north did the French see success. Bessières, whose march on Santander was checked by partisans, turned back only to find Blake and Cuesta with their army atop Medina del Rio Seco. The Spanish generals, at Cuesta's insistence, had made a dash towards the French supply lines at Valladolid and left themselves exposed. After a sharp fight on July 14, the French poured into a gap Cuesta unwisely opened between his troops and Blake's, and swept the motley Spanish army from the field, putting Old Castile firmly back in Napoleon's hands.

At a stroke, Bessières' victory salvaged the strategic position of the French army in northern Spain. The failures at Valencia and Saragossa were forgotten; all that remained was to reinforce Dupont and allow him to force his way south through Andalusia. A delighted Napoleon asserted, "if Marshal Bessières has been able to beat the Army of Galicia with few casualties and small effort, General Dupont will be able to overthrow everybody he meets."^[15] A few days later, Dupont was defeated in battle at Bailén and surrendered his entire Army Corps to General Castaños.

The catastrophe was total. With the loss of 24,000 troops, Napoleon's military machine abruptly collapsed. Joseph and the French command panicked and ordered a general retreat to the Ebro, abandoning Madrid and undoing all of Bessières' hard-fought gains. Europe trembled at this first check to the hitherto unbeatable Imperial armies; a Bonaparte had been chased from his throne; tales of Spanish heroism inspired Austria and showed the force of national resistance. Bailén set in motion the rise of the Fifth Coalition against Napoleon: why could the Austrians not emulate the Spaniards?^[16]

British intervention (August 1808)

Before the Peninsular War, British military operations on mainland Europe had been marked by bungling half-measures and a series of failures (the Walcheren expedition 1809 being the last of these.) The British Army was not large enough to operate on its own against the French, and without strong allies, Britain had been forced to withdraw from Europe. This was the main reason why Portugal refused British aid against Napoleon. On 18 June the Portuguese uprising began. The popular uprisings in Portugal and Spain encouraged the British to commit substantial forces once again and British propaganda was quick to capture the novelty of the situation; for the first time, peoples, and not princes, were in rebellion against the "Great Disturber."

In August 1808 British forces landed in Portugal under the command of Major-General Sir Arthur Wellesley. Wellesley checked Delaborde's forces at Roliça on August 17, while the Portuguese Observation Army of Bernardim contained Loison. On August 21, the Anglo-Portuguese were strongly engaged at the Battle of Vimeiro by French forces under the command of Junot. Wellesley's sound tactics repulsed the French and the Allies held their line. Wellesley however was considered too junior an officer to command the newly-reinforced expedition to Portugal, and he was replaced as commander by Harry Burrard who proceeded to grant Junot very favourable armistice terms, allowing for his unmolested evacuation from Portugal—courtesy of the Royal Navy—under the controversial Convention of Sintra in August. The British commanders were ordered back to England for an inquiry into Sintra, leaving Sir John Moore to head the 30,000-strong British force.

This new expedition enjoyed the advantages of the Royal Navy's command of the seas. After the destruction of the French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar, Vice-Admiral Lord Collingwood's Mediterranean Fleet had bottled up the remaining French fleet at Toulon. The role of the Navy in supply, convoy protection, and intelligence-gathering around the Iberian Peninsula in 1808 was vital to the eventual British success, as Wellington later acknowledged.^{[citation needed]} The actions of the Royal Navy along the Catalan coast of France and Spain slowed the French entry into eastern and southern Spain and drained their military resources in the area.^{[citation needed]} During the whole of 1808 the Royal Navy was active in the defence of Spain, notably during the siege of Roses in Catalunya. Frigate captains such as William Hoste, Jahleel Brenton and Lord Cochrane operated around the strategically vital Gulf of Roses, close to the French border north of Barcelona. In one incident, Lord Cochrane defended a cliff-top fortress against French artillery and infantry for nearly a month, eventually destroying it when the main citadel at Roses capitulated to a superior French force.^{[citation needed]}

Imperial intervention (October 1808–January 1809)

Bailén and the loss of Portugal convinced Napoleon of the peril he faced in Spain. Deeply disturbed by news of Sintra, the Emperor remarked in disgust, "I see that everybody has lost their head since the infamous capitulation of Bailén. I realize that I must go there myself to get the machine working again."^[17] The French, so lately all but masters of Spain, now stood with their backs to the Pyrenees, clutching at scraps of land in Navarre and Catalonia. It was doubtful if even these two footholds could be maintained in the face of a Spanish attack.

However, no attack was forthcoming. The Spanish social fabric, shaken by the shock of rebellion, had given way to crippling social and political tensions: The patriots stood divided and their nascent war effort suffered accordingly. With the fall of the monarchy, constitutional power devolved to local juntas which interfered in military operations, undermined the tentative central government taking shape in Madrid,^[18] proved almost as dangerous to each other as to the French, and went about the business of war with hardly a trace of coordination.^[19] The British army in Portugal, meanwhile, was itself immobilized by logistical problems and bogged down in administrative disputes, and did not budge.

Consequently, months passed with silence on the front, the revolution having "temporarily crippled Patriot Spain at the very moment when decisive action could have changed the whole course of the war."^[20] While the Allies inched forward, a vast consolidation of bodies and bayonets from the far reaches of the French Empire brought 200,000 veterans of the Grande Armée into Spain, captained in person by Napoleon and his Marshals. The second French campaign opened in November and has been described as "an avalanche of fire and steel."

Napoleon's "apparently infallible"^[21] offensive, however, opened badly. In the west, the Spanish left wing slipped the noose when a botched French attack at Pancorbo failed to encircle the Army of Galicia; Blake withdrew his artillery to safety and the Spanish infantry, bloodied by Marshal Lefevbre's brusque attacks, followed in good order. Lefevbre and Victor offered a careless chase that ended in humiliation at Valmaseda where one of their scattered divisions suffered sharply at the hands of La Romana's newly arrived Spanish veterans.

Although this defeat nearly ended Victor's career, the campaign raced to a swift conclusion in the south, where the unprotected Spanish center, true to Napoleon's expectations, was overrun in a devastating attack at Burgos. The Spanish militias, unable to form squares, scattered in the face of massed French cavalry, while the stubborn Spanish and Walloon Guards stood the storm and were slowly chewed up by Lasalle and his sabreurs. Marshal Lannes with a powerful force then smashed through the tottering Spanish right wing at Tudela on November 23, routing Castaños and adding a new inscription to the Arc de Triomphe in Paris.

Finally, Blake's isolated army did an about face November 17 and dug in at Espinosa. His lines shook off determined French blows for a day and a night before cracking. Blake again outmarched Soult and escaped with a rump army to Santander, but the Spanish front had been torn apart and the Imperial armies raced forward over naked provinces. The small British army under John Moore appeared too late and was soon forced into a long retreat, chased by the French and punctuated by battles at Sahagun, Benavente, and Cacabelos. While his subordinates dealt with Moore, Napoleon, pursuing the Spanish mercilessly, marched 45,000 men south into the Sierra de Guadarrama, which shielded Madrid and the remains of Spain's armies.

The mountains hardly slowed Napoleon at all. At Somosierra pass (November 30), his Polish and Guard cavalry squadrons made an heroic charge through raking fire to overcame General San Juan's artillery emplacements. Within hours the Emperor had forced the pass: San Juan's militias gave way before the relentless French infantry and the Spanish Royal Artillerymen stuck by their guns and fought to the last. French patrols reached Madrid December 1 and entered the city in triumph December 4. Joseph Bonaparte had again found his throne. San Juan retreated west to Talavera where his mutinous conscripts shot him before dispersing.

Only at Saragossa, still scarred by Lefebvre's bombardments that summer, did Palafox appear once again to staunch the Imperial tide. Moncey with 45,000 French soldiers resolved on a second siege of the city, but his guns made no impression on the Spaniards and his overtures for an honorable capitulation met with the laconic reply: "War to the knife."^[22] Behind their walls, the Spanish citizen-soldiers that had broken and fled from so many fights proved unmoveable.

Saragossa refused to fall. When the French invested the city on December 20 the Spaniards gave battle along their rubbled defences, when the walls were breached they contested each city street to the death, when the streets were overrun they entrenched themselves in convents with no water and no food, when whole city blocks were lost they put their own homes to the torch, when pestilence overcame them the sick continued to struggle, and when the last of the starving and shot-torn defenders were pushed back and surrounded they fought with a determination which never faltered. Nearly all those who stood with Palafox met their deaths in the struggle, but for two months, the Grande Armée did not set foot on the Ebro's further shore. On February 20, 1809, the French left behind a burnt-out city of perhaps 50,000 corpses.^[23]

At the other end of the country, British troops evacuated from Corunna in January 1809. Moore was killed while directing the defence of the town in an action known as the Battle of Corunna. The British, however, maintained their Lisbon garrison. After only a little more than two months in Spain, Napoleon returned command to his Marshals and went back to France, fairly satisfied with what he had accomplished.

In March, Marshal Soult initiated the second invasion of Portugal, through the northern corridor. Initially repulsed in the Minho river by Portuguese militias, he then captured Chaves, Braga and, on March 29, 1809, Porto. Yet, the resistance of Silveira in Amarante and other northern cities isolated Soult in Porto and he embarked upon a gamble to either become king of North Portugal or retreat from the country.

In Portugal, Miguel Pereira Forjaz, the Secretary of War, had rebuilt the Portuguese Army with money and arms received from the British. The Reform of the Army, held up since 1806, was implemented. In a first phase some 20,000 were called to the Regular Army and some 30,000 to Militias. Later on, this number would grow to 50,000 in the Army and another 50,000 in Militias, in addition to Ordenanças and voluntary units.

Wellesley returns (1809)

Wellesley returned to Portugal in April 1809 to command the Anglo-Portuguese forces. He strengthened the British army with the recently formed Portuguese regiments organized by Forjaz and the Governors of the realm and adapted by General Beresford to the British way of campaigning. These new forces defeated Soult at the Battle of Grijo (May 10 – May 11) and then the Battle of Oporto (May 12). All other northern cities were captured by Silveira.

Leaving the Portuguese to take care of their newly-won territory, Wellesley advanced into Spain to join up with the Spanish army of Gregorio de la Cuesta. The combined Allied force had a sterling opportunity to defeat the French corps of Victor at Talevera, but Cuesta's insistence that the Spanish wouldn't fight on a Sunday (July 25) provided the French the chance to get away. The next day, July 26, having lost the best chance for victory they were likely to get, Cuesta sent his army headlong after Victor, losing a clash with the reinforced French army (now led by King Joseph). The Spanish retreated precipitously, necessitating several British battalions advancing to cover their retreat and almost leading to the capture of Wellesley by French cavalry, just one of the many times the French almost got him. That night a patrol of French dragoons startled the Spanish infantry: ten thousand opened fire at once in one of the largest single volleys of the Napoleonic Wars. Panicked by their own fire, the Spaniards turned and ran, playing nearly no part in the battle the next day.

The next day, July 27, the French advanced in three columns and were repulsed several times throughout the day by British infantry in line, forcing the French to withdraw. the Battle of Talavera de la Reina was a costly victory that left the allies precariously exposed. The British soon retreated westwards, leaving several thousand of their own wounded under Cuesta's protection. The Spanish abandoned them shortly afterwards and they were rescued from their allies by the French. Although the Spanish had promised food to the British if they advanced into Spain, not only was no food given, but Spanish troops threatened to pillage any town that sold food to their 'allies,' forcing the British to continue retreating back to Portugal. The British in the peninsula never quite trusted the Spanish again. Wellesley was made viscount for his victory at Talavera. Later that year, however, Spanish armies were badly mauled at the Battle of Ocana and the Battle of Alba de Tormes.

After his disappointing experience of collaboration with the Spaniards, and fearing a new French attack, Wellesley took the decision to strengthen Portugal's defences. To protect Lisbon, he took a plan from Major Neves Costa and ordered the construction of a strong line of 162 forts along key roads and entrenchements and earthworks, the Lines of Torres Vedras.

Stalemate (1810–1812)

The French reinvaded Portugal in July 1810 with an army of around 60,000 led by Marshal Masséna. The first significant clash was at the Battle of Coa. Later on, Masséna took "the worst route in Portugal." At the Battle of Buçaco on September 27, he suffered a tactical defeat in a careless attack on a strong position, but he soon forced the Allies to retreat to the Lines. The fortifications were so impressive that after a small attack at Sobral on October 14 the conflict fell into stalemate. As Charles Oman wrote, "On that misty October 14^th morning, at Sobral, the Napoleonic tide attained its highest watermark, then it ebbed." The Portuguese population had subjected the area in front of the lines to a scorched earth policy. The French were eventually forced to withdraw due to disease and a lack of food and other supplies.

The Allies were reinforced by the arrival of fresh British troops in early 1811 and began an offensive. A French force was beaten at Barrosa on March 5 as part of an unsuccessful manoeuvre to break up the siege of Cadiz, and Masséna was forced to withdraw from Portugal after an Allied victory at the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro (May 3-5). Masséna had lost 25,000 men in the fighting in Portugal and was replaced by Auguste Marmont. Soult came from the South to threaten Badajoz, but his force was intercepted by an Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish army led by the Marshal William Beresford. At the Battle of Albuera on May 16, the French were forced to retreat after a bloody battle.

The war now fell into a temporary lull, the numerically superior French being unable to find an advantage and being under increasing pressure from Spanish guerilla activity. The French had upwards of 350,000 soldiers in L'Armée de l'Espagne, but the vast majority, over 200,000, were deployed to protect the French lines of supply, rather than as substantial fighting units. Meanwhile, the Spaniards drafted the liberal 1812 Constitution of Cadiz.

In January 1812, Napoleon approved the full annexation of Catalonia into the French Empire. Its territory was divided in départements (Ter, Sègre, Montserrat and Bouches-de-l'Èbre). Looking for the approval of the local population, Catalan language was declared official in those departments together with French. However, it did not succeed because of the historical aversion that Catalan people have against French people, and the guerrilla continued in Catalonia.

Wellesley renewed the Allied advance into Spain just after New Year in 1812, besieging and capturing the fortified towns of Ciudad Rodrigo on January 19 and Badajoz, after a costly assault, on April 6. Both towns were pillaged by the troops. The Allied army took Salamanca on June 17, as Marmont approached. The two forces finally met on July 22, and the Battle of Salamanca was a damaging defeat to the French. Marshal Marmont was severely wounded. As the French regrouped, the Anglo-Portuguese entered Madrid on August 6, and advanced onwards towards Burgos before retreating all the way back to Portugal when renewed French concentrations threatened to trap them.

Endgame (1813–1814)

French hopes of recovery were stricken by Napoleon's disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. He had taken 30,000 soldiers from the hard-pressed Armée de l'Espagne, and, starved of reinforcements and replacements, the French position became increasingly unsustainable as the Allies renewed the offensive in May 1813.

In a strategic move, Wellesley planned to move his supply base from Lisbon to Santander.

The Anglo-Portuguese forces swept northwards in late May and seized Burgos; they then outflanked the French army, forcing Joseph Bonaparte into the valley of the river Zadorra. At the Battle of Vitoria, June 21, the 65,000 men of Joseph were routed by 53,000 British, 27,000 Portuguese and 19,000 Spaniards. Wellesley pursued and dislodged the French from San Sebastian, which was sacked and burnt.

The Allies chased the retreating French, reaching the Pyrenees in early July. Soult was given command of the French forces and began a counter-offensive, dealing the Allied generals two sharp defeats at the Battle of Maya and the Battle of Roncesvalles. Yet, he was severely repulsed by the Anglo-Portuguese, lost momentum, and finally fled after the Allied victory at the Battle of Sorauren (July 28 and July 30).

This week of campaigning, called the Battle of Pyrenees, is perhaps Wellington's finest. The adversaries' numbers were balanced, he was fighting very far from his supply line, the French were defending their territory and, yet, he won by a mixture of manoeuvre, shock, and fire, seldom equalled in the war. It was mountain warfare and at this moment Wellington qualified the Portuguese Army as "The fighting cocks of the (allied) Army".

On October 7, after Wellington received news of the reopening of hostilities in Germany, the Allies finally crossed into France, fording the Bidasoa river. On December 11, a beleaguered and desperate Napoleon agreed to a separate peace with Spain under the Treaty of Valençay, under which he would release and recognize Ferdinand in exchange for a complete cessation of hostilities. But the Spanish had no intention of trusting Napoleon, and the fighting continued.

The Peninsular War went on through the Allied victories of Vera pass, Battle of Nivelle, and the Battle of Nive near Bayonne (December 10–14 1813), the Battle of Orthez (February 27 1814) and the Battle of Toulouse (April 10). This last one was after Napoleon's abdication.

Aftermath

Consequences in Portugal

The Peninsular War signified the traumatic entry of Portugal into the modern age. The Court's movement to Rio de Janeiro initiated the process of Brazil's state-building that eventually produced its independence. The skilful evacuation by the Portuguese Fleet of more than 15,000 people from the Court, Administration, and Army was a bonus for Brazil and a blessing in disguise for Portugal, as it liberated the energies of the country. The Governors of Portugal nominated by the absent king had a scant impact on account of successive French invasions and British occupation.

The role of the War Minister Miguel Pereira Forjaz was unique. Wellington held him as "the only statesman in the Peninsula." With the Portuguese Staff, he managed to build a regular army of 55,000 men and a further 50,000 as national guard milicias and a variable number of home guard ordenanças, perhaps totalling more than 100,000. In an 1812 letter to Baron Stein, the Russian Court Minister, Forjaz recommended a "scorched earth" policy and the trading of time for space as the only way to defeat a French invasion. Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, ordered his generals to use Wellington's Portuguese strategy and avoid battles to starve Napoleon's Grande Armée.^{[citation needed]}

The nation at arms had a similar impact on Portugal as the French Revolution on France. A new class, tried, disciplined, and experienced by war against the French Empire, would assert Portuguese independence. Marshall Beresford and 160 officers were retained after 1814 to lead Portugal's Army while the King was still in Brazil. Portuguese politics hinged on the project of a Luso-Brazilian United Kingdom, with the African colonies supplying slaves, Brazil manufacturing and Portugal the trade. By 1820, this became untenable. Portuguese Peninsular War officers expelled the British and began the liberal revolution at Porto on August 24. Liberal institutions were only consolidated after a Civil War in 1832-34.

Consequences in Spain

King Joseph was cheered initially by Spanish afrancesados ("Frenchified"), who believed that collaboration with France would bring modernization and liberty. An example was the abolition of the Spanish Inquisition. However, priesthood and patriots began an agitation among the populace, which became widespread after the French army's first examples of repression (Madrid, 1808) were presented as fact to unite and enrage the people. The remaining afrancesados were exiled to France following the departure of French troops. The painter Francisco de Goya was one of these afrancesados, and after the war he had to exile himself to France to avoid being prosecuted and perhaps lynched.

The pro-independence side included both traditionalists and liberals. After the war, they would clash in the Carlist Wars, as new king Ferdinand VII, "the Desired One" (later "the Traitor king"), revoked all the changes made by the independent Cortes, which were summoned in Cádiz acting on his behalf to coordinate the provincial Juntas and resist the French. He restored absolute monarchy, prosecuted and put to death every one suspected of liberalism, and, as his last misdeed, altered the laws of royal succession in favour of his daughter Isabella II, thus starting a century of civil wars against the supporters of the former legal heir to the throne.

The liberal Cortes had approved the first Spanish Constitution on 19 March 1812, which was later nullified by the king. In Spanish America, the Spanish and Criollo officials formed Juntas that swore allegiance to King Ferdinand. This experience of self-government led the later Libertadores (Liberators) to promote the independence of the Spanish-American colonies.

French troops seized many of the extensive properties of the Catholic Church. Churches and convents were used as stables and barracks, and artworks were sent to France, leading to an impoverished Spanish cultural heritage. Allied armies also plundered Spanish towns and the countryside. Wellington recovered some of the artwork and offered to return it, but King Ferdinand gave them to him. These pieces can be viewed at the Duke's London home, Apsley House, and at his country estate, Stratfield Saye House.

Another notable effect of the war was the severe damage incurred by Spain's economy, which floundered during the rest of the century.^{[citation needed]}

Topics

Guerrilla war

During the war, the British gave aid to Portuguese militia levies and Spanish guerrillas, who tied down thousands of French troops. The British gave this aid because it cost them much less than it would have to equip British soldiers to face the French in conventional warfare. This was one of the most successful partisan wars in history and is the origin of the word guerrilla in the English language (from Spanish Guerra de guerrillas or "War of little wars"). However, this guerrilla warfare was costly to both sides. Not only did the 'patriotic' Spaniards trouble the French troops, they also petrified their countrymen with a combination of forced conscription and looting of towns. Many of the partisans were, in fact, either fleeing the law or trying to get rich, although later in the war the authorities tried to make the guerrillas militarily reliable, and many of them formed regular army units, like Espoz y Mina's "Cazadores de Navarra", among others.

The idea of forming the Guerillas into an armed force had positive and negative effects. On the one hand, uniform and stronger military discipline would stop men from running off into the streets and disappearing from the band. However, the more disciplined the unit was, the easier it was for the French troops to catch them when they sprang an ambush. Only a few partisan leaders formed with the authorities; most did so just to lay off charges and to retain the effective status of an officer in the Spanish army, therefore meaning that their weaponry, clothes and food would be paid for.

In the absence of a leader such as Wellington, the guerilla style of fighting was the Spanish military's single most effective application. Most organized attempts on the part of regular Spanish forces to take on the French led to defeat for the former. However, once the battle was lost and the soldiers reverted to their guerilla roles, they effectively tied down greater numbers of French troops over a wider area with much less expenditure of men, energy, and supplies. Wellington's final success in the Peninsula is often credited to the internal rotting and demoralization of the French military structure in Spain caused by the guerillas.

Role of intelligence

Intelligence played a crucial role in the successful prosecution of the war by the British after 1810. Spanish and Portuguese guerrillas were asked to capture messages from French couriers. From 1811 onwards, these dispatches were often either partially or wholly enciphered. George Scovell of Wellington's General Staff was given the job of deciphering them. At first the ciphers used were fairly simple and he received help from other members of the General Staff. However, beginning in 1812, a much stronger cipher, originally devised for diplomatic messages, came into use and Scovell was left to work on this himself. He steadily broke it, and the knowledge of French troop movements and deployments was used to great effect in most of the engagements described above. The French never realised that the code had been broken and continued to use it until their code tables were captured at the Battle of Vitoria.

Personalities