Mixed martial arts

For the fighting style, see Hybrid martial arts.

Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a combat sport in which a wide variety of fighting techniques are used, including striking and grappling. The term "Mixed martial arts" also refers to a martial arts style; see Hybrid martial arts.

Modern mixed martial arts emerged in 1993 with the Ultimate Fighting Championships, based on the concept of pitting different fighting styles against each other in competition with minimal rules, in an attempt to determine which system would be more effective in a real, unregulated combat situation.^[1] In the late 1990s and early 2000s, MMA competitions implemented additional rules for the safety of the athletes and to promote acceptance of the sport, while maintaining as much of the original no-holds-barred concept as possible. Since these changes, MMA has grown rapidly, to the point of setting pay-per-view records.^[2]

The history of the modern sport can be traced to the Gracie family's vale tudo ("anything goes") martial arts tournaments in Brazil starting in the 1920s, and early mixed martial arts matches hosted by Antonio Inoki in Japan in the 1970s. MMA gained international exposure and widespread publicity in the US in 1993, when Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu fighter Royce Gracie dominated the Ultimate Fighting Championship, sparking a revolution in the martial arts,^[3] while in Japan in 1997 the continued interest in the sport resulted in the creation of the PRIDE Fighting Championships.^[4]

Overview

Though rules have been adopted, there is no general sanctioning body for the sport, and the sets of rules vary according to the laws of individual organizations and localities. It was thought that Olympic recognition would be forthcoming for the 2004 Summer Olympics, held in Athens, under the banner of pankration. However, the International Olympic Committee was unconvinced that Greece could handle the total number of sports proposed. To placate the IOC, the organizers removed all new medal sports and pankration missed out.^[5]

The techniques utilized in MMA competition generally fall into two categories: striking techniques (such as kicks, knees and punches) and grappling techniques (such as clinch holds, pinning holds, submission holds, sweeps, takedowns and throws). Some unarmed hand to hand combat techniques are considered illegal in arguably all modern MMA competition, such as biting, eye-gouging, fish-hooking and small joint manipulation. Over the last ten years, strikes to the groin have become illegal in all sanctioned MMA organizations.^{[citation needed]} The legality of other techniques such as elbows, headbutts and spinal locks vary according to competition or organization.

A victory in an MMA bout is normally gained by the judges' decision after an allotted amount of time has elapsed, a stoppage by the referee or the fight doctor (in the event that the competitor is injured or can no longer defend himself intelligently), a submission, by a competitor's cornerman throwing in the towel, or by knockout.

While MMA competition is occasionally depicted as brutal by the media,^[6] there has never been a death or crippling injury in a sanctioned MMA event in North America.^[7] The only verified fatality in MMA competition is the 1998 death of Douglas Dedge in a fight in the Ukraine. There are unconfirmed reports that Dedge had a pre-existing medical condition prior to the fight.^[8]

History

One of the earliest forms of widespread unarmed combat sports with minimal rules was Greek pankration, which was introduced into the Olympic games in 648 B.C.^[9]

Some no-holds-barred events reportedly took place in the late 1800s when wrestlers representing a huge range of fighting styles including various catch wrestling styles, Greco-Roman wrestling and many others met in tournaments and music-hall challenge matches throughout Europe^{[citation needed]}. The first major encounter between a boxer and a wrestler in modern times took place in 1887 when John L. Sullivan, then heavyweight boxing champion of the world, entered the ring with his trainer, the Greco-Roman wrestling champion, William Muldoon, and was slammed to the mat in two minutes. The next publicized encounter occurred in the late 1890s when future heavyweight boxing champion Bob Fitzsimmons took on European Greco-Roman wrestling champion Ernest Roeber. Reportedly, Roeber suffered a fractured cheekbone in this bout, but was able to get Fitzsimmons down on the mat, where he applied an arm lock and made the boxer submit. In 1936, heavyweight boxing contender Kingfish Levinsky and the veteran professional wrestler Ray Steele competed in a mixed match, which Steele won in 35 seconds. In all three of these 'mixed-matches', the wrestler won.^[10]

Another early example of MMA combat was the martial art of Bartitsu, founded in London in 1899, which was the first martial art known to have combined Asian and European fighting styles,^[11] and which saw MMA-style contests throughout England, pitting European and Japanese champions against representatives of various European wrestling styles.^[12]

Boxing vs. jujitsu contests were popular entertainments throughout Europe, Japan and the Pacific Rim during the early years of the 1900s. In Japan these contests were known as Merikan, from the Japanese slang for "American (fighting)". Merikan contests were fought under a variety of rules including points decision, best of three throws or knock-downs, and knock-out/submission. ^[13]

Professional wrestling died out after World War I and was reborn in two streams: "shoot", in which the fighters actually competed, and "show," which evolved into modern sports entertainment professional wrestling.^[14]

Modern mixed martial arts are rooted in two interconnected movements. First were the vale tudo events in Brazil, followed by the Japanese shoot wrestling shows. Vale tudo (meaning 'anything goes') began in the 1920s with the famous "Gracie challenge" issued by Carlos Gracie and Hélio Gracie and upheld later on by descendants of the Gracie family.^[9] In Japan in the 1970s, a series of mixed martial arts matches were hosted by Antonio Inoki, inspiring the shoot-style movement in Japanese professional wrestling, which eventually led to the formation of the first mixed martial arts organizations, such as Shooto, which was formed in 1985.^{[citation needed]}

Moreover, the emergence of Bruce Lee in the late 1960's and early 1970's paved the way for further studies of hybrid fighting through his theories on Jeet Kune Do. Lee believed that traditional martial arts were limited to fixed positions from which to strike; a "fancy mess" that strongly inhibited many fighters/practitioners. Lee borrowed facets of Wing Chun, western boxing, fencing, Muay Thai, karate, Jiu Jitsu, Filipino Martial Arts, and even wrestling in order to come up with a fighting style that allowed relaxed movement and effective blows.^{[citation needed]}

Mixed martial arts gained real international exposure and widespread publicity in the US in 1993, when Royce Gracie won the first Ultimate Fighting Championship, sparking a revolution in the martial arts.^[3] In Japan in 1997, the continued interest in the sport eventually resulted in the creation of the PRIDE Fighting Championships,^[4] which in 2007 was bought by the owners of UFC, creating strong ties between the two largest MMA promoters.^[16]

Evolution of MMA fighters

In the early 1990s, three styles stood out for their effectiveness in MMA competition: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Amateur wrestling and Shoot wrestling. This may be attributable in part to the grappling emphasis of the aforementioned styles, which, perhaps due to the scarcity of mixed martial arts competitions prior to the early 90s, had been neglected by most practitioners of striking-based arts.^{[citation needed]}

Even though fighters that combined amateur wrestling and striking techniques dominated the standing portion of an MMA fight, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu stylists had a distinct advantage on the ground. Those unfamiliar with submission grappling proved to be unprepared to deal with its submission techniques.^{[citation needed]} Shoot wrestling practitioners offered a balance of amateur wrestling ability and catch wrestling based submissions resulting in a generally well rounded set of skills. The shoot wrestlers were especially successful in Japan, where the martial art initially dominated other arts.

As MMA competitions became more and more commonplace, those with a base in striking became more competitive as they began to acquaint themselves with takedowns and submission holds, leading to some notable upsets against the dominant grapplers. Subsequently those from the various grappling styles learned from each other's strengths and shortcomings and added striking techniques to their arsenal. This overall development of increased cross-training resulted in the MMA fighters becoming increasingly multi-dimensional in their skills.

Phases of combat

As a result of the MMA sporting events, martial arts training and the understanding of the combat effectiveness of various strategies have changed dramatically over the last ten years. MMA competition has indicated that there are three distinct phases in unarmed fighting:

• Stand-up fighting
• Clinch fighting
• Ground fighting

While the early years included the widest possible variety of traditional styles (everything from sumo to boxing), the continual evolution of the sport has practically eliminated less effective and "pure" styles, usually because fighters who specialized in one particular style were lacking in skills to defend from other techniques.

Training

Today, mixed martial artists train in a variety of styles that have been proven effective in the ring, so that they can be effective in all the phases of combat. Although MMA fighters will try to play to their particular specialties, they will inevitably encounter all kinds of situations; a stand-up fighting specialist will probably get taken down at some point and a submission artist might need to fight standing-up for a while before he can complete a takedown. A mixed martial artist might train in a particular style to enhance his or her skills in the phase of combat that the style encompasses. Typical styles, known for their effectiveness, that have been trained prior to the MMA career, and that are trained individually to enhance a particular phase of combat, are:

• Stand-up: Boxing, kickboxing, and Muay Thai are trained to improve footwork, elbowing, kicking, kneeing and punching.
• Clinch: Freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling, Sambo, and Judo are trained to improve clinching, takedowns and throws, while Muay Thai is trained to improve the striking aspect of the clinch.
• Ground: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, shoot wrestling, catch wrestling, Judo, and Sambo are trained to improve submission holds, and defense against them. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and styles of amateur wrestling are trained to improve positioning and maintain ground control.

Many styles have to be adapted slightly for use in the sport. For example, several boxing stances are ineffective because they leave fighters vulnerable to leg kicks or takedowns. Similarly, Judo techniques have to be adapted to an opponent not wearing a judogi. Commonly, modern day MMA fighters do not train in any particular style, but either train in multiple styles with multiple coaches, or train in teams with other MMA athletes focusing specifically on MMA fighting. Energy system training, speed drills, strength training and flexibility are also important aspects of an MMA fighter's training. Mixed martial arts competition is very demanding physically, and the athletes need to be in top shape to be successful.

While MMA was initially practiced almost exclusively by competitive fighters, this is no longer the case. As MMA has become more mainstream and widely taught it has become available to all ages. Proponents of this sort of training argue that it is safe for anyone, of any age, with varying levels of competition.^[17][18]

Strategies

The following are various nicknames applied to different fighting styles. Although fighters are usually much more versed in one fighting style such as Muay Thai, Brazilian Jiu Jitsu, Wrestling, Judo, et cetera, the following terms are used to describe how a particular fighter is attempting to accomplish a particular victory. For instance, BJ Penn and Fedor Emelianenko score victories both striking, "ground and pounding," and submitting depending on the strengths of their opponents. Furthermore, some styles are not complete styles; rather, they are merely phases in a fighter's game.

Sprawl-and-brawl

Sprawl-and-brawl is a stand-up fighting tactic that consists of effective stand-up striking, while avoiding ground fighting, typically by using sprawls to defend against takedowns.

A sprawl-and-brawler is usually a boxer, kickboxer, Thai boxer and/or full contact karate fighter who has trained in wrestling to avoid takedowns and tries to keep the fight standing. Usually these fighters will study enough submission wrestling so that in the unfortunate event that they are taken down to the ground, they can tie their opponents up and survive long enough to either get back to standing or until the referee restarts the fight. This style is deceptively different from regular kickboxing styles, since sprawl-and-brawlers must adapt their techniques to incorporate takedown and ground fighting defense.

Examples: Mirko “Cro Cop” Filipović, Forrest Griffin, Chuck Liddell, Tim Sylvia and Maurice Smith.

Clinch Fighting

Clinch fighting is a tactic that consists of using a clinch hold to prevent the opponent from moving away into more distant striking range, while at the same time attempting takedowns and striking the opponent using knees, stomps, elbows, and punches.

The clinch is usually utilized by wrestlers that have added in components of the striking game (typically boxing), and Muay Thai fighters. Often, wrestlers that have added the striking game are partial to strikes from within the clinch (particularly wrestlers who have developed a strong clinch game already). In the case that an exchange on the feet does not go in their favor, they can bring the fight to the ground quickly as their true expertise lies in wrestling, so they are ultimately less timid about trading blows. Through the use of Greco-Roman clinching techniques and Muay Thai strikes clinch fighting could be used to devastate ill-prepared opponents.

Examples: Randy Couture, Dan Henderson, Evan Tanner, Wanderlei Silva and Anderson Silva.

Ground-and-pound

Ground-and-pound is a ground fighting tactic consisting of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw, obtaining a top position, and then striking the opponent. Ground and pound is also used as a precursor to attempting submission holds.

This style is used by wrestlers or other fighters well-versed in defending submission holds and skilled at takedowns. They take the fight to the ground, maintain a grappling position, and strike until their opponent submits, is knocked out or is cut so badly that the fight can not continue. Although not traditionally considered a conventional method of striking, the effectiveness and reliability (as well as recently-developing science) of this style is proven. Originally, most fighters who relied on striking on the ground were wrestlers, but considering how many fights end up on the ground and how increasingly competitive today's MMA is, strikes on the ground are becoming more essential to a fighter's training.

Examples: Dan Severn, Mark Coleman, Fedor Emelianenko, Randy Couture, Matt Hughes, and Tito Ortiz.

Submission Wrestling/Brazilian Jiu Jitsu

Apart from being a general martial arts term, submission wrestling is also a reference to the ground fighting tactic consisting of taking an opponent to the ground using a takedown or throw, obtaining a dominant position, and then applying a submission hold to defeat the opponent. Some submission wrestlers are also content to work from the bottom position because they are confident that they can find a way to secure a submission. They will sometimes fall back into the guard position, dragging the opponent with them. This is known as "pulling guard."

Submissions are an essential part of many disciplines, most notably Catch wrestling, Judo, Sambo, and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Fighters with a strong background in these sports often use submission wrestling as a tactic to win their fights.

Examples: Antonio Rodrigo Nogueira, Ken Shamrock, Royce Gracie, Kazushi Sakuraba, Matt Serra, and Fabricio Werdum.

Lay-and-Pray

"Lay-and-Pray" is a derogatory term for a strategy sometimes used by wrestling based fighters who can take an opponent down but are not adept at finishing moves such as the strikes of Ground-and-Pound or Submissions to continue offense from the gained position.^[19] They seek to maintain control of positioning and smother any offense by the opponent, yet mount little or no offense themselves, effectively stalling the fight into a stalemate. Therefore, they are seen as "laying" on the opponent and "praying" for a decision win. In some MMA organizations, penalties or fines can be imposed for lay-and-pray techniques when the referee determines that the fighter is stalling.

Less commonly, the term has been applied to a striking-based fighter who has been taken down and seeks to cause a stalemate in the action by tying up the opponent and "praying" for a stand up by the referee so that they can continue with a striking offense. This differs from the former definition in that it is a defensive strategy. This latter technique is more commonly referred to as "Stall-and-Brawl".

Rules

Background

Main article: Mixed martial arts rules

The rules for most mixed martial arts competitions have evolved since the early days of vale tudo. As the knowledge about fighting techniques spread among fighters and spectators, it became clear that the original minimalist rule systems needed to be amended. Some main motivations for these rule changes included:

• Protection of the health of the fighters: This goal was partially motivated to clear the stigma of "barbaric, no rules, fighting-to-the-death" matches that MMA obtained because of its vale tudo and no holds barred roots. It also helps athletes avoid injuries which would otherwise hamper the training regimens that improve skill and ability and lead to better fights in the future.
• Providing spectacle for spectators: The rules promote good fighters involved in action-packed fights rather than no-skill "street brawls."

Weight classes emerged when knowledge about submissions spread. When more fighters became well-versed in submission techniques and avoiding submissions, differences in weight became a substantial factor. Weight classes can vary widely between organizations (see MMA weight classes).

Headbutts were prohibited because it was a technique that required little effort and could quickly turn the match into a bloody mess. Headbutting was common among wrestlers because their skill in takedowns allowed them to quickly transfer bouts to the ground where they could assault opponents with headbutts while not being required to alter their position.

Small, open-finger gloves were introduced to protect fists in punches. Although some fighters may have well conditioned fists, others may not. The small bones in an unprotected and unconditioned fist are prone to break when it hits a torso or forehead with power. Gloves also reduce the occurrence of cuts (and stoppages due to cuts) and encourage fighters to use their hands for striking, both of which enable more captivating matches.

Time limits were established to avoid long fights on the ground with little perceivable action. No time limit matches also complicated the airing of live events. Similar motivations produced the "stand up" rule, where the referee can stand fighters up if it is perceived both are resting on the ground or are not advancing toward a dominant position.

In the U.S., state athletic and boxing commissions have played a crucial role in the introduction of safety rules because they oversee MMA in similar ways as they do for boxing. Small shows usually use more restrictive rules because they have less experienced fighters who are looking to acquire experience and exposure that could ultimately lead them to getting recruited into one of the larger, better paying promotions.

In Japan and Europe, there is no regulating authority over MMA competitions, so these organizations have greater freedom in rules development and event structure.

In general, a balanced set of rules with some organization-specific variances has been established and is widely used, and major rule changes are unlikely, allowing for fighters in one organization to transition to others easily.

Ways to victory

• Knockout (KO): as soon as a fighter becomes unconscious due to strikes, his opponent is declared the winner (because MMA rules allow ground fighting, the fight is stopped to prevent further injury to an unconscious fighter).
• Submission: a fighter may admit defeat during a match by:
  • tapping three times on his opponent's body;
  • tapping three times on the mat or floor;
  • verbal announcement.
• Technical Knockout (TKO)
  • Referee Stoppage: the referee may stop a match in progress if:
    • a fighter becomes dominant to the point where the opponent is unable to intelligently defend himself from attacks (this may occur as quickly as a few seconds);
    • a fighter appears to be unconscious from a grappling hold.
    • a fighter appears to have developed significant injuries (such as a broken bone) in the referee's view.
  • Doctor Stoppage: the referee will call for a time out if a fighter's ability to continue is in question as a result of apparent injuries (such as a large cut). The ring doctor will inspect the fighter and stop the match if the fighter is deemed unable to continue safely, rendering the opponent the winner. However, if the match is stopped as a result of an injury from illegal actions by the opponent, either a disqualification or no contest will be issued instead. In order to avoid doctor stoppages, fighters employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts and hematomas between rounds to prevent them from becoming significant enough to cause a doctor stoppage.
  • Corner stoppage: a fighter's cornermen may announce defeat on the fighter's behalf by throwing in the towel during the match in progress or between rounds.
• Decision: if the match goes the distance, then the outcome of the bout is determined by three judges. The judging criteria are organization-specific.
• Disqualification: a "warning" will be given when a fighter commits a foul or illegal action or does not follow the referee's instruction. Three warnings will result in a disqualification. Moreover, if a fighter is injured and unable to continue due to a deliberate illegal technique from his opponent, the opponent will be disqualified.
• No Contest: in the event that both fighters commit a violation of the rules, or a fighter is unable to continue due to an injury from an accidental illegal technique, the match will be declared a "No Contest".

Fouls

• No headbutting, eye gouging, hair pulling, biting or fish-hooking.
• No attacking the groin or trachea, or striking the back of the head, spinal area (rabbit punch) or kidneys.
• No small joint manipulation (control of three or more fingers/toes is necessary).
• No intentionally exiting or throwing your opponent out of the ring/cage.
• No purposely holding the ring ropes or fence.
• No spitting on the opponent or referee.
• No timidity - in some competitions fighters can be penalized for lack of aggression.

See also

• List of male mixed martial artists
• List of female mixed martial artists
• List of MMA organizations

References

Further reading

• Danaher, John; Gracie, Renzo. Phases of Combat. www.hkaustralia.com. URL accessed on February 11 2006.
• Gentry, Clyde (2005-04-01). No Holds Barred: Ultimate Fighting and the Martial Arts Revolution. Milo Books. ISBN 978-1903854303. 
• Kallini, Christopher; Meyer, Rob. rec.martial-arts FAQ part 3 of 4. www.faqs.org. URL accessed on February 11 2006.
• Kesting, Stephan. The MMA Formula: Striking + Takedowns + Groundwork. www.grapplearts.com. URL accessed on February 6 2006.
• Pratt, Ryan Sport Specific Training for MMA (Mixed Martial Arts). www.grapplearts.com. URL accessed on February 6 2006.
• Robson, David. Interview with MMA trainer Fred George. http://www.martialedge.co.uk. URL accessed on 31st May 2006