Lebanon

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Lebanon (Arabic: لبنان Lubnān), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية), is a small, largely mountainous country in the Middle East, located at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon follows a special political system, known as confessionalism, meant to distribute power as evenly as possible among different sects.^[1]

Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy.^[2] It was considered the banking capital of the Arab world and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the Middle East"^[3][4] due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists,^[5] to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East."^[6]

Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.^[7] By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,^[8] and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon's resorts.^[5] However, the 2006 Lebanon War brought mounting civilian and military casualties, extensive damage to civilian infrastructure, and massive population displacement from July 12, 2006 until a ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006. As of September 2006, the Lebanese government has been implementing an early recovery plan aimed at reconstructing property destroyed by Israeli attacks in Beirut, Tyre, and other villages in southern Lebanon.

Etymology

The name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Lebnan" or "Lebnèn" in local dialect) is derived from the Semitic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as white and milk.^[9] This is regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.^[10] Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 bc), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 bc), and the Bible.^[10] The word Lebanon is also mentioned 71 times in the Old Testament.^[11][12]

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Lebanon

Lebanon is located in the Middle East. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225 km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for 375 km; the Lebanon-Israel border for 79 km. The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations^[13] (see Blue Line).

Lebanon has a total area of 10,452 km² (4,035 mi²), making it the 166^th largest country in the world. Most of that area is mountainous terrain,^[14] except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, an integral part of Lebanon's agriculture.

Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below 0°C during the winter with frequent (sometimes heavy) snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry.^[15] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.^[16]

In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country's national emblem.^[17] However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon's once-flourishing cedar forests.^[17]

Administrative divisions

See also: Governorates of Lebanon and Districts of Lebanon

Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).^[18] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Lebanon

No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance.^[19] It is estimated that about 40% are Christians (mostly Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Melkite Greek Catholics, Chaldean Catholic), 35% are Shia Muslims, 21% are Sunni Muslims and 5% are Druze.^[20] A small minority of Jews live in central Beirut, Byblos, and Bhamdoun. Lebanon has a population of Kurds (also known as Mhallami or Mardinli), estimated to be between 75,000 and 100,000 and considered to be part of the Sunni population.^[21]

The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July 2006.^[20] There are approximately 16 million people of Lebanese descent, spread all over the world, Brazil being the country with the biggest Lebanese community abroad.^[22] Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela and the US also have large Lebanese communities.

A total of 394,532 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (unrwa) since 1948.^[23]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Lebanon

The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.^[24] Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.^[25] Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arab countries.^[26]

Agriculture

Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arab world.^[27] Ironically though, Lebanon does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce,^[28] agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country's GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors.^[29]

Industry

Lebanon's lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,^[28] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.^[29]

Services and commerce

A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon's strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%)^[28] have preferred employment in the services sector, as a result of the abundant job opportunities and large paychecks. The GDP contribution, accordingly, is very large and amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.^[29]

The economy's dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, since this renders the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade.

Historical development

The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepôt and banking hub.^[20] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.^[30]

Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon's economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars.^[31] By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon has already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.^[31] Market capitalization was also at an all time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006, just weeks before the fighting started.^[31]

Beirut International airport re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with 1.5 billion US dollars pledged),^[32] the European Union (with about $1 billion)^[33] and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.^[34]

Education

Main article: Education in Lebanon

Schools

All Lebanese schools are required by the government to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all,^[35] may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are Mathematics, Sciences, History, Civics, Geography, Arabic, and French, English or both. Other rotating teachers within the school teach Physical Education, Art, and at times library use. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects.

The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11^th graders choice between two "concentrations": Sciences or Humanities, and 12^th graders choice between four concentrations: Life Sciences (SV), General Sciences (SG), Sociology and Economics (SE), and Humanities and Literature (LH). The choices in concentration do not include major changes in the number of subjects taken (if at all). However, subjects that fall out of the concentration are given less weight in grading and are less rigorous, while subjects that fall within the concentration are more challenging and contribute significantly to the final grade.

Students go through three academic phases:

• Elementary : six years.
• Intermediate: three years; students earn Intermediate Certification (Lebanese Brevet) at completion.
• Secondary: three years, students who pass official exams earn a Baccalaureate Certificate (Baccalauréat Libanais) in the concentration they chose in 12th grade.

These three phases are provided free to all students and the first eight years are, by law, compulsory.^[36] Nevertheless, this requirement currently falls short of being fully enforced.

Higher education

Following high school, Lebanese students may choose to study at a university, a college, or a vocational training institute. The number of years to complete each program varies.

While the Lebanese educational system offers a very high quality and international class of education, the local employment market lacks enough opportunities, thus encouraging many of the young educated to travel abroad. You can find successful Lebanese engineers, doctors, businessmen, etc. practically all over the world.

Lebanon has 41 nationally-accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.^[37][38] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first English and the first French universities to open in Lebanon respectively.^[39][40] The forty-one universities, both public and private, largely operate in French, or English as these are the most widely used foreign languages in Lebanon.^[41]

At the English universities, students who have graduated from an American-style high school program enter at the freshman level to earn their baccalaureate equivalence from the Lebanese Ministry of Higher Education. This qualifies them to continue studying at the higher levels. Such students are required to have already taken the SAT I and the SAT II upon applying to college, in lieu of the official exams. On the other hand, students who have graduated from a school that follows the Lebanese educational system are directly admitted to the sophomore year. These students are still required to take the SAT I, but not the SAT II.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Lebanon

Overview

The area including modern Lebanon has been for thousands of years a melting pot of various civilizations and cultures. Originally home to the Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's lively festivals, highly successful musical styles and literature as well as their rich cuisine - and numerous violent clashes amongst different religious and ethnic groups. When compared to the rest of the Middle East, Lebanese society as a whole is well educated, and as of 2003 87.4% of the population was literate.^[42] Lebanese society is very modern and similar to certain cultures of Mediterranean Europe. Not only is Lebanon a distinctive fusion of Christian and Muslim traditions unequaled in the rest of the region, it also serves as the European gateway to the Middle East as well as the Arab gateway to the Western World.^[43]

Languages

Arabic is the official language of Lebanon.^[44] French, too, is widely spoken and was an official language during the French mandate (which lasted until 1943). Spoken Lebanese is quite different from the standard written Arabic language which is taught in schools along with the other foreign languages. English has become very popular in recent years as well,^[44] especially among university students, as a second or sometimes third language. Armenian is the native tongue of the many Armenian communities in Lebanon.^[45]

Cuisine

Main article: Lebanese cuisine

The Lebanese cuisine combines the sophistication of European cuisines with the exotic ingredients of the Middle East.^[46] Some of the most popular local dishes include Kibbeh—a lamb-and-cracked-wheat dish, often grilled or fried—and Tabbouleh, a salad made with cracked wheat, finely chopped parsley, tomato, onions and olive oil.^[47] The Lebanese also enjoy eating food from many different regions;^[47] fast food has also gained widespread popularity, especially among the Lebanese youth.

Arts and literature

In literature, Gibran Khalil Gibran is known to be one of the world's famous writers, particularly known for his book The Prophet, which has been translated into more than twenty different languages.^[48]

In art, Moustapha Farroukh and Alfred Bassbouss are very famous. Charles Khoury is also a very known artist, and he has been awarded many national and international prizes.

Festivals

Several international festivals are held in Lebanon, featuring world-renowned artists and drawing crowds from Lebanon and abroad. Among the most famous are the summer festivals at Baalbek, Beiteddine, and Byblos. Beirut in particular has a very vibrant arts scene, with numerous performances, exhibits, fashion shows, and concerts held throughout the year in its galleries, museums, theatres, and public spaces.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Lebanon

Lebanon is a parliamentary, democratic republic, which implements a special system known as confessionalism.^[49] This system, meant to insure that sectarian conflict is kept at bay, attempts to fairly represent the demographic distribution of religious sects in the governing body. As such, high-ranking offices in the government are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Catholic Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister an Orthodox Christian, and the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim.^[50][51]

This trend continues in the distribution of the 128 parliamentary seats, which are divided in half between Muslims and Christians. Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Accord, which put an end to the 1975-1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.^[50] According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every four years, although for much of Lebanon’s recent history, civil war precluded the exercise of this right.

The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term. At the urging of the Syrian government, this constitutional rule has been bypassed by ad hoc amendment twice in recent history. Elias Hrawi’s term, which was due to end in 1995, was extended for three years.^[52] This procedure, denounced by pro-democracy campaigners, was repeated in 2004 to allow Émile Lahoud to remain in office until 2007.^[53]

The President appoints the Prime Minister on the nomination of the parliament (which is, in most cases, binding).^[54] Following consultations with the parliament and the President, the Prime Minister forms the Cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism.

Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. Lebanese law does not provide for Civil marriage (although it recognizes such marriages contracted abroad); efforts by former President Elias Hrawi to legalize civil marriage in the late 1990s floundered on objections mostly from Muslim clerics. Additionally, Lebanon has a system of military courts that also has jurisdiction over civilians for crimes of espionage, treason, and other crimes that are considered to be security-related.^[55] These military courts have been criticized by human rights organizations such as Amnesty International for "seriously fall[ing] short of international standards for fair trial" and having "very wide jurisdiction over civilians".^[56]

History

Main article: History of Lebanon

Ancient history

Main article: History of ancient Lebanon

Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.^[57] After two centuries of Persian rule, Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the leading Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Greco-Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman.

French mandate and independence

Main article: French Mandate of Lebanon

Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, but following World War I, the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria.^[58] Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate for Syria.

Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.^[59] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On