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Image:Watchtower-brooklyn.jpg Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York Jehovah's Witnesses are an international Christian denomination that had its origins in the United States with the 19th century Millerite and Bible Student movements. They adopted their present name in 1931 under the presidency of Joseph Franklin Rutherford.
The central theme of their preaching is God’s Kingdom with Jesus Christ as its king. The Witnesses believe that the reign of Jesus began with the Second Coming or presence of Christ. Originally, the Second Coming was believed to have occurred invisibly in 1874, but this date was later revised to 1914. Witnesses believe that their faith is the restoration of first-century Christianity. Thus, Jehovah's Witnesses reject traditional Christian doctrines such as the Trinity, eternal torment in hell and the immortality of the soul as being later, illegitimate additions to the original Christian teachings. Other Witness teachings include the recognition and use of a personal name for God, translated as Jehovah in English, as vital for acceptable worship. They believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, Adam, thus opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind. Jehovah's Witnesses annually commemorate the Memorial of Christ's death.[2] It is also taught that 144,000 people will receive immortal life in heaven with Jesus Christ as co-rulers guiding the rest of humankind to perfection on a paradise earth during the 1000 year reign. Witnesses believe that during the war of Armageddon, which they believe to be imminent, the wicked will be destroyed, and that the survivors of this event, along with individuals deemed worthy of resurrection, will form a new society ruled by a heavenly government and have the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise. Official world-wide membership of the organization, counted as those who preach each month, is 6.7 million as of August 2006.[1]
History
Russell and BarbourIn the early 1870s, Russell organized a Bible study group of Second Adventists (a group that arose after the Millerite Great Disappointment) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[2] An interest in Bible prophecy was sparked, in part, by Jonas Wendell. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour's eschatology. Barbour had predicted the visible return of Christ at 1873, and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874. [3] [4] Soon after Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ had returned invisibly to Earth in 1874. [5] They differed from most Second Adventists by teaching that all humankind descending from Adam would be given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth.[6] The year 1914 was expected to be the final end, marking a forty-year period from 1874.[7] Russell's break with BarbourIn July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour over the concept of substitutionary atonement and he soon began publishing his own magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence (now known as The Watchtower).[8] After the break, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views. He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of Hell and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.[9] He became known as "Pastor Russell", and in 1881 formed the legal entity which developed into the non-profit organization: The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (currently headquartered in New York City).[10] In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume series, Studies in the Scriptures.[11] Early editions predicted that Armageddon would culminate in the year 1914.[12]Russell also wrote regarding his expectations: "We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises . . . We do not even aver that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophecy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."[13] In 1914, Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in the United Kingdom. Presidency of Joseph Franklin RutherfordImage:Rutherford.jpg Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869-1942) Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in Russell's Last Will and Testament.[14] On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (also known as "Judge Rutherford") was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society.[15] Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book The Finished Mystery was released to the Bethel headquarters staff.[16] Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.[17] The four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918,[18] 1920[19] and 1925.[20][21]
The Finished Mystery, published in 1917, was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.[22]Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violating the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison. The charges were later dropped.[23] An emphasis on house-to-house preaching began in 1922.[24] The period from 1925-1933 saw many significant changes in doctrine. Attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925[25] down to 17,380 in 1928,[26] due to the previous power struggle, the failed predictions for the year 1925,[27] and the evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with Russell's views.[28] By 1933, 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology.[29] The editorial committee was disbanded with Rutherford having the final say regarding what went into Watchtower publications.[30] The offices and election of elders and deacons were also discontinued during this era with all "servants" in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.[31] Hitler's Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in concentration camps. Their identifying badge was a purple triangle.[32] In a book on Jehovah's Witnesses under the Nazi regime, Hans Hesse commented, "Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith"[33] During this time period, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because they were perceived as being against the war effort.[34] Under Rutherford, membership grew from about 21,000 in 1917 to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942. Presidency of Nathan Homer KnorrNathan Homer Knorr succeeded Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower Society. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead to train missionaries, as well as the Theocratic Ministry School to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Significant Supreme Court victories involving the rights of free speech and religion for Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others.[35] In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette that school children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to salute the flag. Knorr's vice-president Frederick William Franz became the leading theologian, and is believed to have been the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.[36] Also produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures) and a Bible dictionary (Aid to Bible Understanding).[37] The offices of elder and ministerial servant (deacon) were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.[38] Membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr's presidency. Image:Watchtower headquarters.jpg Watchtower Building facing East River in New York Reorganization of the leadershipIn 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, since 1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower publications.[44] Witnesses no longer teach that the generation of people alive in 1914 will survive until Armageddon,[45] but are encouraged not to lose confidence in "the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment."[46] DemographicsImage:JWStats.png Average Publishers, 1945–2005 Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of August 2006, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.5 million members actively involved in preaching.[47] Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 6.7 million.[48] However, there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2% per annum since 1999.[49] Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical variation. [50] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' members, who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 16.6 million attending in 2006.[51] Organizational structureImage:Org chart.jpg Chart (December 15 1971) "Watchtower": 749. It should be possible to replace this fair use image with a freely licensed one. If you can, please do so as soon as is practical. Jehovah's Witnesses are currently led by a small Governing Body located at the Watchtower headquarters. The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from 10 to 17 and now stands at 10. The Governing Body, through the departments of its various legal organizations, directs the operation of the 112 branches throughout the world.[52] Members volunteer to operate these facilities. Each branch assigns circuit overseers who travel among various congregations, spending a week with each. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership. Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling. Ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Both are unpaid, but circuit and district overseers receive a small financial living allowance. All baptized Witnesses are considered to be ordained ministers and are expected to be able to provide religious instruction to others. Males are encouraged to qualify for responsibilities in the congregation and to work towards becoming ministerial servants or elders. Within local congregations the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility. They cannot serve as elders or ministerial servants, though they carry out a large proportion of the preaching work, including aiding others in the congregation to become more regular in preaching. The legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses include corporations that represent the denomination in legal matters. Most well known is the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. In 2000, three new non-profit corporations were organized: Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses coordinates all service (i.e., preaching) activities, including door-to-door preaching, circuit and district conventions, etc. Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses coordinates the activities of those involved in full-time service, including pioneers, missionaries, and circuit and district overseers. Kingdom Support Services, Inc. controls construction of new Kingdom Halls and other facilities and holds the titles to Society-owned vehicles. PublicationsThe publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania engages in extensive publication work. In addition to their two magazines— 'The Watchtower' and 'Awake!' — they also publish many brochures, tracts and books including the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.
All publications printed by Jehovah's Witnesses are offered free of charge. BloodThe official teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses rejects allogeneic and pre-operative autologous transfusions of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.[54] This is based on an understanding of the biblical admonition to "keep abstaining from blood" based on Acts 15:28, 29 (NWT). Baptized Witnesses who violate the prohibition on blood are considered to have revoked their membership and are shunned.[55] However, it is a personal decision on how their "own blood will be handled in the course of a surgical procedure, medical test, or current therapy."[56][57] In current medical practice, whole blood transfusions are very rare, and individual blood components are used instead.[58]While Witnesses may not accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may accept any fractions made from these components.[59][60] However, if a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to them but is permissible.[61] Jehovah's Witnesses have been known to highlight dangers of blood transfusions. Witness representatives have stated that plasma volume expanders are often sufficient to take care of various medical emergency situations.[62] However, Witnesses explain that their objections to blood transfusions are for religious reasons.[63] A growing number of hospitals are offering bloodless techniques in medicine and surgery.[64] A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah's Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the dissemination of information regarding bloodless surgery techniques.[65][66] Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies.[67] Witness publications have acknowledged that abiding by this doctrine has led to premature deaths due to blood loss, but there are no published statistics on total deaths.[68] However, regarding the single patient presentation of pregnancy, a 2002 medical journal stated: "In the CEMD the very high risk of mortality in women who refuse blood transfusion was highlighted. The death rate in this group was 1 per 1,000 maternities compared with an expected incidence of less than 1 per 100,000 maternities."[69] In her article in the Journal of Church and State, Kerry Louderback-Wood alleges that labeling the currently acceptable blood fractions as "minute" in relation to whole blood causes followers to misunderstand the scope and extent of allowed fractions.[70]She also claims that Witness publications exaggerate the medical risks of taking blood and the efficiency of non-blood medical therapies in critical situations.[71] Ethical concerns in managing blood crisis situations in pediatric cases has sometimes led to transfusions being administered to children against family wishes.[72]Some medical ethicists contend that "serious ethical violations are currently used to enforce the blood policy" among Jehovah's Witnesses, including the suppression of dissident views within the religion.[73]Witness leaders have defended these policies as obedience to scripture and religious conscience.[74] Beliefs and practicesImage:Kingdomhall.jpg Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses Witnesses consider the entire Biblical canon, excluding the Apocrypha, the inspired word of God. They interpret the Bible literally, though it is acknowledged that biblical writers and characters employed symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism.[75] They hold that the Bible alone should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is considered the responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.[76] Jehovah's Witnesses view God as the creator of everything and supreme being, the sovereign of the universe. Using God's name, Jehovah (a derivative of the Tetragrammaton[77]), is a requirement for true worship.[78] Jesus is God's first creation, considered an independent entity from God, but used by Him to create everything else.[79] Jesus is literally the only begotten Son of God, and received his life from God. He is the only means by which to approach God in prayer, and is also the means of salvation for all worthy mankind.[80] His role as mediator of the "new covenant" is limited to those going to heaven,[81] whose number totals 144,000. The vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live on a renewed paradise on Earth.[82] They believe that Jesus did not die on a cross but on a "torture stake".[83] The holy spirit is not a person but is God's active force.[84] The soul is the person itself, not an immortal immaterial entity that dwells inside the body.[85] Thus, souls of deceased persons who are not immediately resurrected to heaven are considered dead, and death itself is a state of non-existence with no consciousness.[86] Hades or Sheol is the designated common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment.[87][88] The "last days" began in 1914 and Armageddon is imminent.[89] All other religions are false and they will shortly come under attack by governments worldwide.[90] After false religion is destroyed, governments also face destruction.[91] Any who are not deemed faithful by God will be destroyed with no hope of resurrection.[92] The fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, remains to be decided by God.[93] After Armageddon, an unknown number of people, both righteous and unrighteous, who had died (prior to Armageddon) will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever in paradise.[94] Their view of morality reflects conservative Christian views. Homosexuality and premarital sex are considered sins.[95] Abortion is considered murder.[96] Modesty is heavily encouraged in dress and grooming. Gambling is strictly forbidden.[97] Practices that connote nationalism or false religion are avoided. Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed; however, common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as Birthdays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas are regarded as unchristian and are not celebrated.[98] The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is strongly encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings. Marriages are required to be monogamous.[99] Vigorous efforts are made to spread their beliefs by all members throughout the world in a variety of ways, with particular emphasis on the Watchtower publications. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with a small number being available in as many as 410 languages. They are known for their sometimes controversial belief that blood is not to be eaten or transfused.[100] Jehovah's Witnesses are politically neutral.[101] They feel that their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.[102] They believe that such an act would be tantamount to worshipping an idol. Members are expected to obey all laws, including the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law.[103] The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service, even when such is of a compulsory nature, and by their detachment from secular politics. Before 1996, Jehovah's Witnesses also refused alternatives to military service.[104][105][106] Jehovah's Witnesses are discouraged, but not prohibited under all circumstances, from voting in elections.[107] They believe voting or elections in themselves are harmless, for example, although they would not generally vote to elect a political leader, they would have no problem voting on a trivial issue such as what color balloons to buy for a party.[108] They do not stand for any political office.[109] Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members, while providing assistance to others in need near the area in which they are working. Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, as well as to Congo refugees.[110] Witnesses have also had an active share in the relief work of hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.[111] However, on-going aid work as provided by some other religious groups, such as soup kitchens, clothing donations, or building homes for the homeless is not practiced. The preaching work is regarded as a form of humanitarian effort by giving people hope for the future.[112] The most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death (referred to as "the Memorial") held after sundown on the date corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar. Onlookers do not partake of the emblems representing Christ's flesh and blood unless they believe they have the heavenly hope. Typically, in most congregations no one partakes since almost all Witnesses today believe their hope is to live on a paradise earth. Weekly meetings are also held, featuring a variety of discourses. Elders and ministerial servants deliver the majority of these. But in the "Theocratic Ministry School", one of the five meetings, some male students who are not appointed servants can also give discourses in a class setting. "Sisters are also given opportunity to enroll in the school and present talks in field-service settings—not addressing themselves to the entire audience but, rather, to the one assigned to take the role of householder." .[113] Certain segments also feature audience participation. Congregational disciplineJehovah's Witnesses employ various levels of congregational discipline as formal controls administered by leaders of the congregation. The determination of guilt or innocence is judged by a tribunal of elders. A variety of controls can be enforced, from a restriction of duties performed in the congregation to excommunication, known as disfellowshipping, and shunning by the congregation. Members who are disfellowshipped have an opportunity to regain membership. The practice of shunning has been criticized by many non-members. Congregational discipline is administered by congregation elders through a 'judicial committee'. Only after an accusation (or confession) of serious wrongdoing is made against a baptized member of the congregation, and there appears to be sufficient substance to the accusation, is a judicial committee (usually consisting of three elders) formed to review the facts and to determine if there is sufficient proof of evidence or admission to offer counsel or to administer discipline. Marking is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant disfellowshipping. If the conduct of the individual is considered a danger to the members of the congregation, a talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the individual), thus 'marking' the member in the minds of those who know of the conduct. Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would generally be minimized.[114] Reproof involves sins which are more serious than those for which one would be "marked". Reproof is given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.[115] The most severe discipline, administered as a last resort after previously mentioned assistance has failed, is disfellowshipping. The factor determining whether an individual would be disfellowshipped or not is based on whether the wrongdoer by his actions is giving evidence of repentance. The Judicial Committee asks probing questions and reviews actions of the member being considered, ascertaining which scriptural law or principle has been violated in consultation with guidelines provided by the Governing Body.[116] Baptized members who oppose essential Scriptural doctrine may be disfellowshipped for apostasy.[117]Once the decision to disfellowship has been made, a person has seven days to appeal. If no legitimate appeal is made, the disfellowshipping will be announced to the congregation by letting them know that the person "is no longer one of Jehovah's Witnesses".If a member does appeal the decision a special Judicial committee is formed of at least 3 or 4 Presiding Overseers, or one elder from several different congregations. After a member has been disfellowshipped, all congregation members avoid all association with that person.[118] Exceptions are made in business and family household situations. If the disfellowshipped person is living in the same home with other baptized family members, religious matters are not discussed, with the exception of minors, for whose training parents are still responsible.[119] Disfellowshipped family members outside the home are shunned.[120] Disfellowshipped members are still permitted to attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.[121] A member can officially leave the religion by writing a letter stating he no longer wishes to be known as one of Jehovah's Witnesses thus disassociating himself from the congregation and will thereafter be treated the same way as a disfellowshipped person. In rare cases elders may also determine a member has disassociated himself by his actions. Both result in shunning.[122] If a disassociated or disfellowshipped individual requests reinstatement to the congregation, a Judicial Committee, usually consisting of the elders who sat on the original committee if available, is formed to review the evidence. Once a decision is made to reinstate, a brief announcement is made to the congregation that the disfellowshipped member is once again an approved associate of the congregation and one of Jehovah's Witnesses. Critical viewsOne of the most outspoken critics of Jehovah's Witnesses is Raymond Franz, a former third-generation Jehovah's Witness. Franz, who served nine years on the Governing Body, uses Galatians 1:16–20 to support his claim that Paul of Tarsus did not view the apostles in Jerusalem as a governing body. He further contends that the council of Jerusalem was an isolated event, and that the creation of a central authority in Christianity was a 4th century development.[123] As well, he argues a sense of guilt is imposed on those not complying with organization arrangements for field service. Further, he contends that engaging in this formal activity became an extra-scriptural requirement placed upon those wanting to qualify for eldership. He claims in addition that an individual's spirituality is judged by the elders on this basis. Further, he is critical of the application of the phrase "house to house" (gr. "kat' oikon") found at Acts 5:42, stating it does not require the idea of consecutive door-to-door visitation. He compares 27 Bible translations, for Acts 2:46, Acts 5:42 and Acts 20:20 showing phrases such as "at home", "at your houses" and "in your homes" are used more often than "house to house".[124] He also maintains that fear of being shunned and/or family break-up/loss causes people to nominally remain members rather than formally disassociate themselves. Also, Franz asserts that the judicial process itself, due to its private and nearly autonomous nature, directly contradicts the precedent found in the Bible and the organization's own teachings, and can be used in an arbitrary manner.[125] Criticism regarding the procedures on reporting child abuse has also occurred. The current procedure that is followed when allegations of abuse are reported is based on a strict application of the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15: "No single witness should rise up against a man respecting any error or any sin, in the case of any sin that he may commit. At the mouth of two witnesses or at the mouth of three witnesses the matter should stand good" (New World Translation). If an allegation of child abuse is made, and the alleged perpetrator denies it, the local congregational elders will investigate to see if there can be any others who can substantiate the claim. If there are none, the elders do not disfellowship the accused individual, since the accusation may have no merit. However, according to the Jehovah's Witness Office of Public Information: "Even if the elders cannot take congregational action, they are expected to report the allegation to the branch office of Jehovah's Witnesses in their country, if local privacy laws permit. In addition to making a report to the branch office, the elders may be required by law to report even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to the authorities. If so, we expect the elders to comply. Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so."[126] In 1997 it was also stated that, "for the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation" (e.g. serving as elders or ministerial servants). This would be upheld even if the crime was committed years before, or prior to the person's becoming a Witness. The general policy is not premised as punishment to the offender, but seen rather, by the religion, as a means of protecting the congregation's members.[127] ControversyWitnesses teach that after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a Great Apostasy, from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Thus a number of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream Christianity and are considered heresy by some members of these other denominations. Possibly the most controversial doctrinal differences relate to the nature of God and of Jesus, particularly the Jehovah's Witnesses' rejection of the Trinity doctrine. The Encyclopedia Britannica states, "To some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared inconsistent with the unity of God....They therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ, not as incarnate God, but as God's highest creature by Whom all else was created....[this] view in the early Church long contended with the orthodox doctrine."[128] (see Arianism).Thus this view, supported by the Witness today, still generates controversy among mainstream Christians. However, Jehovah’s Witnesses say they are not Arians, "inasmuch as they disagree with Arius’ views in many respects" [129] Some scholars have criticized the New World Translation, the translation of the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, stating that the group has changed the Bible to suit their doctrine and that the translation contains a number of errors and inaccuracies.[130] Other scholars have defended the translation, one even comparing it to 9 other translations and concluding that the New World Translation "emerges as the most accurate". [131] A large number of books have been published that are critical of the Watchtower Tract & Bible Society.[132] Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel"[133] used by God to continually dispense truth. Raymond Franz, a former member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, has challenged the Witnesses' policies on blood transfusions, stating that their requirements are inconsistent and contradictory.[134] However, to Witnesses blood as the fluid per se is not the real issue, it is what it represents. They say that "the important thing is that respect has been shown for the sanctity of blood, regard has been shown for the principle of the sacredness of life" represented by the blood.[135][136] When the blood has been drained from an animal, the respect has been shown to God and then a person may eat the meat even though it may contain minute traces of blood. Critics have also argued that various Witness policies and practices — including the treatment of members who dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshipped by the congregation, limiting of external information about the group from former members, and the regulation of members' lives — limit the ability of members to exercise personal freedom. Witnesses teach that "freedom to make decisions [is] to be exercised within the boundaries of God’s laws and principles." [137] And that “only Jehovah [is] free to set the standard of what is good and bad.”[138] However, the leadership promotes itself as the channel God uses[139] to interpret and instruct members about "what is good and bad". The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society's former affiliation with the Department of Public Information of the United Nations has been controversial. Also controversial has been the view of Jehovah's Witnesses towards other religions. Some countries such as Uzbekistan, Cuba, Belarus, and the city of Moscow have opposed the building of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls) and the holding of large conventions in their territory. Though such opposition is at times specifically directed at the religious group, at other times more mundane concerns are involved, such as traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, (such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village)), disputes that have been about appropriate land use have been claimed by the Witnesses to have come out of religious bias. See also
References
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