Income tax

An income tax is a tax levied on the financial income of persons, corporations, or other legal entities. Various income tax systems exist, with varying degrees of tax incidence. Income taxation can be progressive, proportional, or regressive. When the tax is levied on the income of companies, it is often called a corporate tax, corporate income tax, or profit tax. Individual income taxes often tax the total income of the individual (with some deductions permitted), while corporate income taxes often tax net income (the difference between gross receipts, expenses, and additional write-offs).

It has become widely accepted that corporations and companies should not pay taxes equivalent to the rates paid by private individuals. Instead of paying a percentage of Gross Income (Revenue) in tax, as private individuals do, corporations and companies pay a much smaller percentage of their Gross Income, due to their ability to write-off the majority of their Gross Income as 'Tax Deductable Expenses.'

This is an ingrained economic philosophy, which faces little argument within the public domain, due to the fact that Tax Deductable Corporate Expenses have been the norm for hundreds of years. This special exemption for corporations was devised at the dawn of Corporation history, in the era of human slavery, by European Industrialists, highly influential within national governments, who wished to fund their adventures abroad.

The net result of this economic model is that corporations are able to expand and grow exponentially, by re-cycling their Gross Income into their own expansion. This economic model has been proven by economists and philosophers to be incompatible with the much more important human need for 'Sustainable Development.' As private citizens become more aware of the tremendous detrimental effects on the natural environment, and human life, caused by the 'Growth Model' of economic development, new economic philosophies are emerging.

Taxing corporations according to their Gross Income is now seen by many as a first step towards releasing vast economic resources, currently the preserve of a tiny percentile of the human community, for the development of sustainable and renewable technologies. This new economic philosophy is known as 'Sustainable Economics.' Most global corporations have a tax liability of less than 3% of their Gross Income, in contrast to private citizens who can pay as much as 70% of their income in tax in some countries.

Corporations have been legally recognized as private citizens since the Industrial Revolution, so that no individual within a corporation can be prosecuted for crimes committed against private citizens by that corporation. From a legal point of view, a corporation is simply a very large and wealthy private citizen. However, unlike human private citizens, corporations do not have the same financial obligations to the State. They occupy a privileged 'gated community' within the legislature of all developed economies.

Income Tax, as it relates to corporations, must be understood within the frame-work of the current global economic system, which allows corporations to reduce their legal and financial responsibilities to both national governments and private individuals, by 'emigrating' their activities abroad.

Income Tax (as a percentage of Gross Income) is difficult to levy against corporations that have a multi-national presence on the planet. To set a rate of Gross Income Tax on multi-national corporations, as a percentage of their Gross Income, would require the co-operation of many national governments, or a global financial body. It may be some time before a national government invites the controversy of proposing a Gross Income Tax on corporate earnings. Until then, however, corporate profits will continue to exponentially rise, as the global gap between rich and poor widens.

Principles

The "tax net" refers to the types of payment that are taxed, which included personal earnings (wages), capital gains, and business income. The rates for different types of income may vary and some may not be taxed at all. Capital gains may be taxed when realized (e.g. when shares are sold) or when incurred (e.g. when shares appreciate in value). Business income may only be taxed if it is significant or based on the manner in which it is paid. Some types of income, such as interest on bank savings, may be considered as personal earnings (similar to wages) or as a realized property gain (similar to selling shares). In some tax systems, personal earnings may be strictly defined where labor, skill, or investment is required (e.g. wages); in others, they may be defined broadly to include windfalls (e.g. gambling wins).

Tax rates may be progressive, regressive, or flat. A progressive tax taxes differentially based on how much has been earned. For example, the first $10,000 in earnings may be taxed at 5%, the next $10,000 at 10%, and any more income at 20%. Alternatively, a flat tax taxes all earnings at the same rate. A regressive income tax may tax income up to a certain amount, such as taxing only the first $90,000 earned. A tax system may use different taxation methods for different types of income. However, the idea of a progressive income tax has garnered support from economists and political scientists of many different ideologies, from Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations^[1] to Karl Marx in The Communist Manifesto.^[2]

Personal income tax is often collected on a pay-as-you-earn basis, with small corrections made soon after the end of the tax year. These corrections take one of two forms: payments to the government, for taxpayers who have not paid enough during the tax year; and tax refunds from the government for those who have overpaid. Income tax systems will often have deductions available that lessen the total tax liability by reducing total taxable income. They may allow losses from one type of income to be counted against another. For example, a loss on the stock market may be deducted against taxes paid on wages. Other tax systems may isolate the loss, such that business losses can only be deducted against business tax by carrying forward the loss to later tax years.

History

The concept of taxing income is a modern innovation and presupposes several things: a money economy, reasonably accurate accounts, a common understanding of receipts, expenses and profits, and an orderly society with reliable records. For most of the history of civilization, these preconditions did not exist, and taxes were based on other factors. Taxes on wealth, social position, and ownership of the means of production (typically land and slaves) were all common. Practices such as tithing, or an offering of firstfruits, existed from ancient times, and can be regarded as a precursor of the income tax, but they lacked precision and certainly were not based on a concept of net increase.

In 10, Emperor Wang Mang of China instituted an unprecedented tax -- the income tax -- at the rate of 10 percent of profits, for professionals and skilled labor. (Previously, all Chinese taxes were either head tax or property tax.) A true income tax was first implemented in Britain by William Pitt the Younger in his budget of December 1798 to pay for weapons and equipment in preparation for the Napoleonic wars. Pitt's new graduated income tax began at a levy of 2d in the pound (0.8333%) on incomes over £60 and increased up to a maximum of 2s (2.5%) on incomes of over £200. Pitt hoped that the new income tax would raise £10 million but actual receipts for 1799 totalled just over £6 million (see UK income tax history for more information).^[3] The first United States income tax was imposed in July 1861, 3% of all incomes over 600 dollars (later rescinded in 1872).^[4]

Criticism

Critics of income tax systems have argued that they can be extremely complex, requiring detailed record-keeping, lengthy instructions, and complicated schedules, worksheets, and forms. Critics further claim that income tax systems can penalize work, discourage saving and investment, and hinder the competitiveness of business.^[5] Income taxes are not border-adjustable; meaning the tax component embedded into products via taxes imposed on companies cannot be removed when exported to a foreign country (see Effect of taxes and subsidies on price). Taxation systems such as a national sales tax or value added tax remove the tax component when goods are exported and apply the tax component on imports.^[6] The principles of an income tax are also argued by critics. Frank Chodorov wrote "... you come up with the fact that it gives the government a prior lien on all the property produced by its subjects." The government "unashamedly proclaims the doctrine of collectivized wealth. ... That which it does not take is a concession."^[4]

Income tax systems

Australia

Main article: Income tax in Australia

Since 1942, income tax in Australia has been collected solely by the Federal Government, to the exclusion of the Australian States (see Constitutional basis of taxation in Australia). Australia uses a system of progressive taxation on personal income that is collected as a pay-as-you-go tax (known as PAYG), a flat rate tax on business income (company tax), and a property tax limited to realised capital gains. Australia’s income tax system contains a complex array of deductions and offsets, and is administered by the Australian Taxation Office.

Canada

Main article: Income taxes in Canada

The income tax was first imposed in Canada in 1917 on both individuals and corporations, collected primarily by the Federal Government. Tax collection agreements enable both the federal and provincial governments to levy income taxes through a single administration and collection agency, called the Canada Revenue Agency. The federal government collects personal income taxes on behalf of all provinces except Quebec and collects corporate income taxes on behalf of all provinces except Alberta and Quebec. Canada has a graduated tax system, whereby the percentage over the "more than" amount goes up....graduated from 15.25 - 29% (2006).^[8] These rates, together with provincial income tax rates, federal and provincial surtaxes, and provincial health premium taxes (both also calculated based on income), serve to create a combined top marginal tax rate that can exceed 50% annually in many provinces.^{[citation needed]}

France

Main article: Taxation in France

The French income tax is a progressive tax, i.e. tax is an increasing piecewise affine continuous function of income (excluding various rebates etc.). This means that the amount of income earned up to a certain amount t1 is taxed at a rate r1, then the remaining money, up to a certain amount t2 is taxed at a rate r2, etc. The income tax (impôt sur le revenu): 16% of tax revenue. The tax on corporations: 12% of tax revenue.

The French Governement has launched the Copernic tax project which unifies the tax paying process.

Hong Kong

There are three income types earned in Hong Kong that are taxed, but they are not locally referred to as income taxes. Per Inland Revenue Ordinance Chapter 112 (IRO), these three types are classified into: Profit tax IRO section 14, Salaries tax IRO section 8, and Property tax IRO section 5.^[9]

India

Main article: Income tax in India

The government of India imposes an income tax on taxable income of individuals, Hindu Undivided Families(HUFs), companies (firms), co-operative societies and trusts. The Income Tax department is governed by the Central Board for Direct Taxes (CBDT) and is part of the Department of Revenue under the Ministry of Finance. The individual income tax is a progressive tax with three brackets. No income tax is applicable on income up to INR 110,000 per year. (INR 145,000 for women and INR 195,000 for senior citizens). The highest bracket is 30%, with a 10% surcharge (tax on tax) for incomes above Rs. 10 lakh (INR 1 million).^[10] All income taxes are subject to 3% education cess, applicable on the tax paid. Deductions and rebates are provided for housing purchases, rent, long term savings, and insurance.

Business income is taxed at a flat rate of 33% for Indian companies and 40% for foreign companies.^[10] Dividends are income tax free to shareholders. Instead, companies are charged a 15% dividend distribution tax. Long term capital gains stands at 20% (for gold, real estate, etc.) with indexation benefits provided for inflation adjustments. For sales of shares in recognized stock exchanges, long term capital gains are not taxed, and short term gains are charged 10% tax (less than 1 year of holding). All other short term gains are clubbed with income in the year the gains occur.

Indonesia

Main article: Taxation in Indonesia

The income tax in Indonesia is known as Pajak Penghasilan (PPh) and is considered a progressive tax.

Iran

Main article: Income tax in Iran

The Islamic Republic of Iran has income taxes. The highest tax bracket on profits is 46.4%.

Italy

Refer to IRPEF (in Italian) for the Italian personal taxation system.

The Italian personal income tax is a progressive tax, i.e. tax is an increasing piecewise affine continuous function of income (excluding various rebates etc.). This means that the amount of income earned up to a certain amount t1 is taxed at a rate r1, then the remaining money, up to a certain amount t2 is taxed at a rate r2, etc.

Netherlands

Main article: Income tax in the Netherlands

The Netherlands taxes income on personal income (wages, profits, social security); some business income; and savings and investments. The tax on personal income is progressive and casts a wide tax net over wages, profits, social security, and pensions. The tax is withheld from wages and can reach a marginal rate of 52%. As an example of the breadth of the tax net, value gains in owner-occupied homes are treated as personal income, even though those gains are not realized (i.e. do not equate to cash in hand). Interest can be deducted as a cost incurred in earning the income. The tax on business income is a flat tax of 25% and only applied to "substantial business interests", which are generally a shareholding of 5%. A flat tax is paid on savings and investments, even if the gain is not realized.

Peru

Main article: Income tax in Peru

The income tax in Peru is collected by the Superintendencia Nacional de Administración Tributaria (SUNAT). This country uses a system of progressive taxation on personal income, and a flat rate tax on business income.

Singapore

Main article: Individual income tax in Singapore

Singapore has a progressive individual income tax,^[11] with taxes ranging from 0% to 22% up to Year of Assessment 2007. The tax net includes employment income, dividends, interests, and rental incomes.^[11] A range of deductions are available. Singapore also has an income tax on corporations.^[12]

Sweden

Sweden has a taxation system that combines a direct tax (paid by the employee) with an indirect tax (paid by the employer). In practice, the employer provides the state with both means of taxation, but the employee only sees the direct tax on his declaration form. The compilation of taxes that compose the final income tax (2003): tax on gross income from the employer: 32.82% (indirect, fixed), pension fee on gross income: 6.95% (indirect, fixed), municipal tax on gross income less pension tax and a base deduction: ~32% (direct, varies by municipality), state tax on gross income less pension tax and a base deduction: 0%, 20%, or 25% (direct, progressive).

United Kingdom

Main article: Taxation in the United Kingdom

The British income tax system is progressive with a number of bands:20% (basic rate for unearned income), 20% (basic rate on earnings from employment, a trade or profession), and (in respect of the higher rate band and trust income) 32.5% on UK dividends and 40% on other sources of income.^[13] There are also a number of untaxed allowances to which tax bands do not apply. The tax is an annual tax and is reimposed each year in the annual Finance Act. In addition, the UK has a National insurance contribution based on income. Although effectively another form of income tax, credits for payments of this applied to the individual's record which, in turn, will impact on entitlement to welfare and (the level of) state pension payments. Rates are levied on the self employed, the employed, and their respective employers. The United Kingdom also imposes a corporation tax, charged on the profits and chargeable gains of companies. The main rate is 28%, which is levied on taxable income above GBP 1.5 million. In 2005-06, income below this level was taxed at 0% and 19%, but with marginal reliefs in between the bands.^[14]

United States

Main article: Income tax in the United States

The United States imposes an income tax on individuals, corporations, trusts, and certain estates. This tax is imposed on the income event, such as the receipt of wages. Another example of an income event is the realization of a gain on the disposition of property; that is, the appreciation on the value of property is not taxed until that property is sold (i.e., when the gain is "realized").

The U.S. income tax was first proposed during the War of 1812, but was defeated.^[4] In July 1861, the Congress passed a 3% tax on all net income above $600 a year (about USD 10,000 today). Income taxes were enacted at various times until 1894, but were not imposed after 1895 until the 16th Amendment was ratified in 1913.^[4] Ratification has been unsuccessfully disputed by some tax protestors who have also made other arguments about the validity of the U.S. income tax (see Tax protester arguments).

U.S. state

Main articles: State income tax and State tax levels

Income tax may also be levied by individual U.S. states and are on top of the federal income tax. In addition, some states allow individual cities to impose an additional income tax. However, some state and local taxes are deductible for federal tax purposes. Not all states levy an income tax (see State income tax).

Countries with no personal income tax

See also

Notes

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1. ^ Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature And Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). Book Five: Of the Revenue of the Sovereign or Commonwealth. CHAPTER II: Of the Sources of the General or Public Revenue of the Society. ARTICLE I: Taxes upon the Rent of House. [1]
2. ^ Marx, Karl (1848-02-21). Section II. Proletarians and Communists. Communist Manifesto. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
3. ^ A tax to beat Napoleon. HM Revenue & Customs. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
4. ^ ^{a b c d} Young, Adam (2004-09-07). The Origin of the Income Tax. Ludwig von Mises Institute. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
5. ^ America Needs a Better Tax System. The President’s Advisory Panel on Federal Tax Reform (2005-04-13). Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
6. ^ Linbeck, Leo (2006-06-22). Testimony Before the Subcommittee on Select Revenue Measures. House Committee on Ways and Means. Retrieved on 2006-08-11.
7. ^ OECD Tax Database. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved on 2007-01-30.
8. ^ What are the income tax rates in Canada for 2006?. Canada Revenue Agency (2007-07-06). Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
9. ^ The Hong Kong Ordinances. Bilingual Laws Information System. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
10. ^ ^{a b} Income-Tax. Taxmann Publications. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
11. ^ ^{a b} Individual Income Tax. Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
12. ^ Corporate Tax. Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
13. ^ Rates and Allowances - Income Tax. HM Revenue & Customs. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
14. ^ Rates and Allowances - Corporation Tax. HM Revenue & Customs. Retrieved on 2007-01-24.

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