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Etymology and usageCoinage
In its more recent usage, dating from 1969, "homophobia" derives from the -phobia ending applied, not to the Latin root "homo", but to a shortening of homosexual. (Here, homo comes not from the Latin for "man", but from the Greek for "same"; see homosexual.) The word first appeared in print in the American Time magazine, 31st October edition.[5] It was used by clinical psychologist George Weinberg, who claims to have first thought of it while speaking at a homophile group in 1965, and was popularized by his book Society and the Healthy Homosexual in 1971. When asked about the meaning of the word in a 2002 interview, he said:
A possible etymological precursor was homoerotophobia, coined by Wainwright Churchill in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967. Similar termsSimilar terms such as heterosexism have been proposed as alternatives that are more morphologically parallel, and which do not have the association with phobia. Heterosexism refers to the privileging of heterosexuality over homosexuality. Queer Theory and critical theory use the terms heterocentric and heteronormativity to refer to similar ontological assumptions.[citation needed]
Seeking to avoid both the focus on individual psychology of "homophobia" and the focus on collective cultural factors of "heterosexism," psychologist Gregory Herek has proposed the term "sexual prejudice" as referring to "all negative attitudes based on sexual orientation, whether the target is homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual." [9] The term homophobia is often used collectively with other terms denoting bigotry and discrimination. In a recent address, Coretta Scott King asserted that, "Homophobia is like racism and anti-Semitism and other forms of bigotry in that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their humanity, their dignity and personhood." Likewise, George Yancey, writing in Christian Ethics Today associates "sexism, racism, class distinctions, or homophobia" with one another and views them all as "varieties of discrimination," although he argues that they are not identical. [10] Critics of the termSome researchers within the field have preferred other terms to "homophobia." For example, Gregory M. Herek, a researcher at the University of California, Davis, compared several related terms: "homophobia," "heterosexism," and "sexual prejudice." In preferring the latter term, he noted that "homophobia" was "probably more widely used and more often criticized," and observed:
He preferred "sexual prejudice" as being descriptive and free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking in value judgements as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labelled.[11] In 1980 Hudson and Ricketts proposed the term "homonegativity," arguing that "homophobia" was unscientific in its presumption of motivation.[12] The Concerned Women for America, a conservative lobby group, has called homophobia a "deceptive term" which is "used by pro-gay proponents to confuse the issue and control the debate" by defining all opposition to homosexuality as irrational. CWA asserts that pro-gay proponents would not be able to identify any examples of non-homophobic opposition to homosexuality because they define all opposition as "homophobic" and "irrational bigotry." [13] CWA calls this "deceptive rhetoric." The National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality, describes the term homophobia as being "often used inaccurately to describe any person who objects to homosexual behavior on either moral, psychological or medical grounds." They claim that, "Technically, however, the terms actually denotes a person who has a phobia--or irrational fear--of homosexuality. Principled disagreement, therefore, cannot be labeled 'homophobia.'" [14] Distribution/frequency of attitudes in the US and UKDisapproval of homosexuality and of homosexuals is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, sex, social class, education and religious status. According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, low educational level and social status, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences, religious views, and lack of interaction with homosexuals are strongly associated with such views.[15] One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards homosexuals are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors. The study claims to have found that hatred of homosexuals, anti-semitism and racism are "likely companions,"[16] suggesting it is an abuse of power. The anxiety of non-gay individuals that others may identify them as gay, particularly among adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is factored in part on not being seen as gay,[17][18] has also been identified by Michael Kimmel as an example of homophobia.[19] The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually homosexual) is claimed to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of fatal school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.[20] Classification of homophobiaHomophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others. [21] [22] Internalized homophobiaInternalized homophobia (or ego-dystonic homophobia) refers to homophobia as a prejudice carried by individuals against homosexual manifestations in themselves and others. It causes severe discomfort with or disapproval of one's own sexual orientation. Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires. In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This discordance often causes clinical depression, and the unusually high suicide rate among homosexual teenagers (up to 30% of non-straight youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.[23] The theory attributing higher incidences of depression, alcoholism and other self-destructive tendencies among homosexually oriented individuals to internalized homophobia has been put into question by groups such as NARTH that oppose the American Psychiatric Association's 1973 decision to remove of homosexuality from the DSM. Studies of homosexuals in societies such as Sweden, New Zealand and the Netherlands where homosexuality is more socially accepted than in the United States found similar incidences of such behavior. [24][25] J. Michael Bailey, researcher behind the New Zealand study warns a politicization of research into homosexuality has arisen in the name of preventing homophobia. Bailey argues "...it would be a shame if sociopolitical concerns prevented researchers from conscientious consideration of any reasonable hypothesis" regarding homosexuality. [26] The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need to promote or conform to the expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism. This might include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some also apply this label to LGBT persons who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions an acceptable alternative to same-sex marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgment call or the result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some debate. Some claim (including Sigmund Freud in his psychoanalytic theory[citation needed]) that some or most homophobics are repressed homosexuals, but this claim is somewhat controversial. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half claimed to be homophobic by experience and self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia [27] found that the allegedly homophobic men (as measured by the Index of Homophobia)[28] were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men. However, the homophobic men also tended to report more negative emotions in response to those particular images (not sexual arousal), and the researchers noted that general anxiety has been shown to enhance erectile response. There was no significant difference in results on the Aggression Questionnaire. The group recommended further research. Fear of being identified as a homosexualA component considered to play into homophobia, as considered by some theorists, such as Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler, is an individual's fear of being identified as homosexual him- or herself. This notion suggests that when expressing homophobic viewpoints and emotions, the individual who does so is not only expressing his thoughts as to homosexuals, but also actively attempting to distance himself from this category and attributed social status. Therefore, by distancing him or herself from the people in question, he/she is reaffirming his/her role as a heterosexual, within heteronormativity, and contributing to the avoidance of his/her potential labeling and consequent treatment as a homosexual. This interpretation plays into notions of violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing one's identity as part of the majority and therefore, validated by society. This concept is also recurrent in interpretations of racism and xenophobia. Nancy J. Chodorow states, that homophobia can be viewed as method of protection of male masculinity.[29] Various psychoanalytic theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own homosexual impulses or to a possibility of arising such impulses. This threat causes repression, denial or reaction formation.[30] Homophobia as leading to a climate of prejudiceGay rights supporters generally use the terms "homophobia" and "homophobic" to imply that all opposition to homosexuality is irrational. Whether viewed as prejudices or legitimate moral opinions, attitudes frowning on LGBT orientations and lifestyles have been reflected in legislation and these attitudes have had a profound impact on political debates over LGBT civil rights in general. Some look at people holding negative attitudes about LGBT people and assign blame to them for a creating or perpetuating a climate of prejudice that has resulted in violence against LGBT people, by individuals, states or other organizations.Many social and religious attitudes toward homosexuality are negative, which some might describe as a form of prejudice. See Societal attitudes towards homosexuality and Religion and homosexuality. Psychology researchers have used measures such as the Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) to predict homophobic attitudes. These measures are traditionally used to measure other forms of prejudice. Homophobia in the black communityHomophobia is quite rife in the black community. It is pronounced in: Sexist beliefsSome gender theorists interpret the fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger reaction in a homophobic person than female-to-female (lesbian) as meaning that the homophobic person feels threatened by the perceived subversion of the gender paradigm in male-to-male sexual activity. According to such theorists as D.A. Miller, male heterosexuality is defined not only by the desire for women but also, and more importantly, by the denial of desire for men. Therefore, expressions of homophobia serve as a means of limiting those who they view as displaced in heteronormativity, and also of accenting their male nature, by isolating the threatening concept of their own potential femininity in gay men, and consequently belittling them, as not real males. They regard the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female homosexuality as sexist in its underlying belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to "replace" a woman during intercourse with another man is his own subjection to (non-male) inferiority. However, this view would imply that only the receptive male partner in homosexual acts would be thought of as "offensive", which is the case in many cultures. Miller's specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require "desire for women" would seem to preclude the possibility of asexuality or bisexuality. Nor is it clear why male heterosexuals would "need" or even fear homosexuals in order to affirm maleness – unless their sexuality was already experienced as threatened by some other cause. Combatting homophobiaTo combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as pride parades and political activism (See gay pride). Many of these displays are criticized for reinforcing negative stereotypes about LGBT people (e.g. "dykes on bikes," the prominence of cross-dressing, a gay male fascination with musicals, the color pink, antireligious sentiments, a sex-positive atmosphere which might appear to endorse a promiscuous lifestyle). Some are meant to challenge such stereotypes and often include the involvement of liberal religious organizations that support gay rights (See Religion and homosexuality), the families of LGBT people, and LGBT people with children.[citation needed] One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the International Day Against Homophobia (IDAHO), [31] first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries. [32] Besides public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly.[33] Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:
Accusations of homophobiaIn politicsIt is often argued that the key motivation for active opposition to equal civil rights for LGBT people is homophobia.[citation needed] Political opposition to LGBT social movements is often referred to as homophobic opposition, and opponents of LGBT civil rights such as same-sex marriage, repeal of sodomy laws, adoption by same-sex couples, or the inclusion of sexual-orientation as a class in affirmative action and hate crime laws are often accused of doing so because they are perceived to be homophobic. President Ronald Reagan was believed by many in the LGBT community to have ignored the onset of the AIDS crisis in the U.S. and its impact on homosexual men because of perceived homophobia among Christian conservatives, a large portion of Reagan's political base.[35] Senator Rick Santorum was accused of homophobia by the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association,[36] for making a declaration that he believed consenting adults do not have a constitutional right to privacy with respect to sexual acts. Santorum described the ability to regulate homosexual acts as comparable to the states' ability to regulate sexual behaviors such as bestiality, pedophilia and incest. (See Santorum controversy) In popular culture
References
See also
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