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HistoryBeginning in the late 1980s, Sony began marketing the concept of "electronic cinematography", utilizing its analog HDTV cameras. The effort met with very little success. In 1998, with the introduction of HDCAM recorders and 1920 × 1080 pixel digital video cameras based on CCD technology, the idea, now re-branded as "digital cinematography", finally began to gain traction in the market.
In parallel with these developments in the world of traditional high-budget cinematography, a digital cinema revolution was occurring from the bottom up, among low budget filmmakers outside of the Hollywood system. Beginning in the mid-1990s, with the introduction of Sony's DCR-VX1000, the digital MiniDV format began to emerge. MiniDV offered much greater quality than the analog formats that preceded it, at the same price point. While its quality was not considered as good as film, these MiniDV camcorders, in conjunction with non-linear editing software that could run on personal computers, allowed a large number of people to begin making movies who were previously prevented from doing so by the high costs involved with shooting on film. Today, cameras from companies like Sony, Panasonic, JVC and Canon offer the prosumer market a variety of choices for shooting high-definition video with less than $10,000 worth of camera equipment. At the high-end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market. These cameras offer resolution and dynamic range that exceeds that of traditional video cameras, which are designed for the limited resolution and dynamic range of broadcast television. TechnologyDigital cinematography captures motion pictures digitally, in a process analogous to digital photography. While there is no clear technical distinction that separates the images captured in digital cinematography from video, the term "digital cinematography" is usually applied only in cases where digital acquisition is substituting for film acquisition, such as when shooting a feature film. The term is not generally applied when digital acquisition is substituting for analog video acquisition, as with live broadcast television programs. Sensors
High-end cameras designed specifically for the digital cinematography market typically use a single sensor (much like digital photo cameras), with dimensions similar in size to a 35mm film frame. An image can be projected onto a single large sensor exactly the same way it can be projected onto a film frame, so cameras with this design can be made with PL, PV and similar mounts, in order to use the wide range of existing high-end cinematography lenses available. Their large sensors also let these cameras achieve the same shallow depth of field as 35mm movie cameras, which is important because many cinematographers consider selective focus an essential visual tool. Prosumer cameras and professional cameras designed primarily for the broadcast market typically use three 1/3" or 2/3" sensors in conjunction with a prism, with each sensor capturing a different color. This has benefits in terms of color reproduction, but renders these cameras incompatible with traditional cinematography lenses and incapable of achieving 35mm depth of field. These cameras are sometimes used in conjunction with depth-of-field adaptors to overcome these limitations. However, such adaptors degrade image quality and result in a loss of light, making cameras which can natively accept 35mm format lenses preferable if such lenses are to be used. Note that Sony's CineAlta cameras, despite being designed and marketed specifically for high-end digital cinematography, nonetheless use a design based around three 2/3" sensors. Panasonic also has cameras designed for digital cinematography which follow this pattern. This design decision is probably attributable to the long history these companies have making cameras for the broadcast market. Acquisition FormatsWhile many people make movies with MiniDV camcorders and other consumer and prosumer products that have lower resolutions or shoot interlaced video, cameras marketed as digital cinematography cameras typically shoot in progressive HDTV formats such as 720p and 1080p, or in higher-end formats created specifically for the digital cinematography market, such as 2K and 4K. To date, 1080p has been the most common format for digitally acquired major motion pictures. No major motion picture has been shot at 4K. However, due to the availability of new cameras in 2007 which may make 4K acquisition more practical, this is likely to change.[citation needed] Data StorageTape vs. Data-CentricBroadly, there are two paradigms used for data storage in the digital cinematography world. Many people, particularly those coming from a background in broadcast television, are most comfortable with video tape based workflows. Data is captured to video tape on set. This data is then ingested into a computer running non-linear editing software, using a deck. Once on the computer, the footage is edited, and then output in its final format, possibly to a film recorder for theatrical exhibition, or back to video tape for broadcast use. Original video tapes are kept as an archival medium. The files generated by the non-linear editing application contain the information necessary to retrieve footage from the proper tapes, should the footage stored on the computer's hard disk be lost. Increasingly, however, digital cinematography is shifting toward "tapeless" workflow, where instead of thinking about digital images as something that exists on a physical medium like video tape, digital video is conceived of as data in files. In tapeless workflow, digital images are usually recorded directly to files on hard disk or flash memory based "digital magazines". At the end of a shooting day (or sometimes even during the day), the digital files contained on these digital magazines are downloaded, typically to a large RAID connected to an editing system. Once data is copied from the digital magazines, they are erased and returned to the set for more shooting. Archiving is accomplished by backing up the digital files from the RAID, using standard practices and equipment for data backup from the Information Technology industry, often to data tape. CompressionDigital cinema cameras are capable of generating extremely large amounts of data; often hundreds of megabytes per second. To help manage this huge data flow, many cameras or recording devices designed to be used in conjunction with them offer compression. Prosumer cameras typically use high compression ratios in conjunction with chroma subsampling. While this allows footage to be comfortably handled even on fairly modest personal computers, the convenience comes at the expense of image quality. High-end digital cinematography cameras or recording devices typically support recording at much lower compression ratios, or in uncompressed formats. Additionally, digital cinematography camera vendors are not constrained by the standards of the consumer or broadcast video industries, and often develop proprietary compression technologies that are optimized for use with their specific sensor designs or recording technologies. Lossless vs. lossy compressionA lossless compression system is capable of reducing the size of digital data in a fully reversible way -- that is, in a way that allows the original data to be completely restored, byte for byte. This is done by removing redundant information from a signal. Digital cinema cameras rarely use only lossless compression methods, because much higher compression ratios (lower data rates) can be achieved with lossy compression. With a lossy compression scheme, information is discarded to create a simpler signal. Due to limitations in human visual perception, it is possible to design algorithms which do this with little visual impact. Chroma subsamplingSome digital cinematography systems further reduce data rate by subsampling color information. Because the human visual system is much more sensitive to luminance than to color, lower resolution color information can be overlaid with higher resolution luma (brightness) information, to create an image that looks very similar to one in which both color and luma information are sampled at full resolution. This scheme may cause pixilation or color bleeding under some circumstances, however, and the highest quality digital cinematography systems are capable of recording full resolution color data (4:4:4). BitrateVideo and audio compression systems are often categorized by their bitrates. Bitrate describes how much data is required to represent one second of media. One cannot directly use bitrates as a measure of quality, because different compression algorithms perform differently. A more advanced compression algorithm at a lower bitrate may deliver the same quality as a less advanced algorithm at a higher bitrate. Intra- vs. Inter-frame compressionMost compression systems used for acquisition in the digital cinematography world compress footage one frame at a time, as if a video stream is a series of still images. Inter-frame compression systems can further compress data by examining and eliminating redundancy between frames. This leads to higher compression ratios, but displaying a single frame will usually require the playback system to decompress a number of frames that precede it. In normal playback this is not a problem, as each successive frame is played in order, so the preceding frames have already been decompressed. In editing, however, it is common to jump around to specific frames and to play footage backwards or at different speeds. Because of the need to decompress extra frames in these situations, inter-frame compression can cause performance problems for editing systems. Inter-frame compression is also disadvantageous because the loss of a single frame (say, due to a flaw writing data to a tape) will typically ruin all the frames until the next keyframe occurs. In the case of the HDV, format, this may result in as many as six frames being lost. Digital acquisition codecs compared
Distribution FormatsMovies shot digitally may be released theatrically or on VHS or DVD. Digital Theatrical DistributionFor the relatively small number of theaters with digital projectors, digital films may be distributed digitally, either shipped to theaters on hard drives or sent via the Internet or satellite networks. Digital Cinema Initiatives, LLC, a joint venture of Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Universal and Warner Bros. Studios, is working to establish standards for digital cinema projection. In July of 2005, they released v.1.0 of the Digital Cinema System Specification, which encompasses 2K and 4K theatrical projection. They also offer compliance testing for exhibitors and equipment suppliers. Distributors prefer digital distribution, because it saves them the expense of making film prints, which may cost as much as $2000 each. Digital projection also offers advantages over traditional film projection such as lack of jitter, flicker, dust, scratches, and grain. Theater owners have balked at the high cost of installing digital projection systems, however, and while the number of digital venues is growing, growth is slower than many people anticipated. New payment models in which distributors would bear some of the cost of digital projection systems may result in the number of digital screens expanding faster in the future. Film-based Theatrical DistributionMost theaters do not yet have digital projection systems, so even if a movie is shot digitally, it must be transferred to film if a large theatrical release is planned. Typically, a film recorder will be used to print digital image data to film, to create a 35mm internegative. This internegative is then treated much as a camera negative from a film camera, and the same traditional optical processes are used to generate release prints from it. Digital Cinematography CamerasThere are a number of products on the market designed specifically for the high-end digital cinematography market. These cameras typically offer relatively large sensors, selectable frame rates, recording options with low compression ratios or in some cases with no compression, and the ability to use high-quality optics. With the possible exception of the Red One, which has not yet been released, and to some extent the noX these cameras are priced well out of the range of self-funded low-budget filmmakers. Some cannot be purchased at all, and are only available for rental at rates of thousands of dollars a day. Arriflex D20Dalsa OriginAlthough a relative newcomer to the field of motion-picture and video equipment, Dalsa is a respected manufacturer of high resolution imaging systems, known for their satellite and military imaging products. The Origin uses a 4046 × 2048 pixel frame transfer CCD sensor, much larger than that of any competitor, having the same height as a 35mm film frame but more than 1.5 times its width. This is a bayer-pattern sensor; see discussion in the Resolution section. Most lenses designed for 35mm film cameras will only produce a fully-focused image slightly larger than a standard 35mm film frame, so a considerable portion of the image produced on an Origin sensor is "wasted". With the majority of existing 35mm-type film lenses, only about 2,500 horizontal pixels can be used in practice. Perhaps the most unique characteristic of the Origin is its dynamic range. The camera outputs 16 bit-per-pixel image data with 12 f-stops of latitude on a nearly linear response curve. Like the Arri D-20, the Origin uses a rotating mirror shutter to give an optical viewfinder option. This mirror also blanks the CCD sensor chip during the frame readout period. The present incarnation of the Dalsa camera body is very large, similar in size to a small desktop computer tower, although its weight is generally similar to that of a 35mm film camera. The Origin offers several data output options including uncompressed RGB, but at present (Dec. 2006) there is no provision for on-board recording. Possibly as a result of these drawbacks and/or concerns about how to manage the captured data in post-production, no major feature film has been shot with the Origin to date. GS Vitec noXThe noX was introduced by the German company GS Vitec in spring 2007. It is a 2K and full HD (1080p) cinematographic camera with a single 1.2" CCD sensor. Designed as an alternative to 35 mm film cameras she is renowned for the film-like quality of her pictures. The noX offers all features of other high-end digital cinematography cameras but is considerably less expensive. Sony CineAltaThe CineAlta series of cameras are essentially the high definition video descendants of Betacam, geared toward motion picture production. As well as the standard NTSC and PAL frame rates (29.97 and 25 frames per second respectively), they can shoot at the same 24 frames per second (24p) as film. Their CCD sensors have a resolution of 1920 × 1080 pixels (1080p). The CineAlta is somewhat notable because it uses a three sensor design like most prosumer and broadcast TV cameras, rather than a single-chip sensor design like most other cameras made specifically for motion picture production market. (See discussion in the Sensors section.) CineAlta cameras (most notably the Sony HDW-F900) record onto HDCAM tapes. However, the CineAlta can only record 1440 × 1080 pixel compressed component video in this mode. Episode II of the Star Wars Prequel Trilogy was shot with the CineAlta. Episode III was shot with more advanced HDW950 cameras which can record the full 1920 × 1080-pixel frame. When shooting in the 2.35:1 widescreen format, only about 800 of the 1080 vertical pixels are actually used. In 2006 Sony demonstrated a new CineAlta camera at various trade shows, such as NAB, BIRTV and IBC. At Inter BEE 2006 in Japan in November, Sony announced this camera would be released as the F23. It will replace the HDC-F950, which has been out of production. When used with an SRW-1 portable tape deck, the combined unit can be operated as an HDCAM SR camcorder, effectively providing for on-camera recording. Panavision GenesisFollowing the lukewarm film industry response to the "Panavized" CineAltas used by George Lucas, in 2004 Panavision introduced the Genesis. The Genesis produces similar 1920 × 1080 resolution images to its predecessor, using a similar tape format, but uses a single non-bayer CCD sensor with the same width (but not the same height) as a standard 35mm film frame. This allows standard 35mm cine lenses to be used, with much the same control over depth of field as a 35mm film camera. The Genesis was first used in 2005 on the films Superman Returns and Flyboys. April 14 2006 saw the release of Scary Movie 4, the first general release of a Genesis-captured feature film. There was considerable industry comment about the variable image quality, (mostly the often soft-looking images) until it was revealed that parts of it (in particular the opening scenes) were actually captured on 35mm film. Hence, the producers' claim of "indistinguishable from 35mm film" does not appear to hold up, at least in this instance. However comments on the color quality were generally favorable, at least compared to earlier "all digital" productions. Reaction to the image quality on Superman Returns was much more positive. Jeff Otto praised the film's clean sharp look and bright color, and found it fitting for the subject[1]. In an important milestone, most reviewers found the film's look sufficiently film-like that the movie's digital origins did not rate comment [2]. Reviews concentrated instead on typical elements such as cast and plot. Red OneAvailable 2007, super 35mm 4K+ sensor. Thomson ViperThe Viper, another three-sensor camera design, captures a 1920 × 1080 pixel image. In addition to uncompressed RGB output, the Viper is also capable of outputting RAW sensor data, which allows for more control in post-production. The camera has a unique feature known as Dynamic Pixel Management, which allows the camera to change its aspect ratio by vertically ganging pixels. This allows the cinematographer to shoot at different aspect ratios without cropping the image (thus losing resolution) or using anamorphic lenses. The Viper was first used on Rudolf B.'s short movie Indoor Fireworks, though the first feature shot entirely with the Viper was is the British independent Production Silence Becomes You by director Stephanie Sinclaire.[1] The first major motion picture shot using the Viper was Michael Mann's Collateral, which was followed by Miami Vice. The first feature film to be shot entirely in the uncompressed digital data format is Zodiac. One of the Viper's strengths is its ability to shoot with extremely low light levels, which allowed much of Collateral to be shot on the streets of Los Angeles, CA at night without the need for substantial supplemental lighting equipment. While the Viper is designed to produce full resolution raw images in 4:4:4 log data, it can also produce 4:4:4 RGB video images; Michael Mann has used it this way. Tom Burstyn, CSC, using the Viper in the 4:2:2 HDStream mode, was nominated for an Emmy in Cinematography for the first season of the USA Network show "The 4400." The camera lacks on-board recording. The signals from the Viper may be recorded to either a tape format or a disk array, depending on what mode the camera is used in. The Viper is also used to tape popular children's show LazyTown. Panasonic VariCamVision Research PhantomAt NAB 2006, Vision Research Inc -- a high-speed digital imaging company based in Wayne, New Jersey -- introduced and demonstrated live images from their Phantom65 digital cinema camera. The Phantom65 is the world's first 65mm digital cinema camera. It has 4K (4096 × 2440) resolution with adjustable aspect ratios, up to 125 frames-per-second recording speed, and a 70mm depth-of-field. They also introduced the PhantomHD high-definition camera. It can acquire images at HD (1920 × 1080) or 2K (2048 × 1556) resolution and shoot at up to 1000 frames per second, adjustable in increments of 1 frame-per-second. Fusion Camera SystemJames Cameron and Vince Pace developed the Fusion Camera System aka Reality Camera System 1 as way to shoot features in stereoscopic 3-D.[3] The digital high definition camera was used on Cameron's documentaries Aliens of the Deep and Ghosts of the Abyss. Robert Rodriguez also used the camera to shoot Spy Kids 3-D and The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D. Consumer & Prosumer CamerasIndependent filmmakers have also pressed low-cost consumer and prosumer cameras into service for digital filmmaking. These cameras typically cost under $10,000 (sometimes under $1000). Though image quality is typically much lower than what can be produced with professional digital cinematography cameras, the technology has steadily improved, most significantly in the last several years with the arrival of high definition cameras in this market. These inexpensive cameras are limited by their relatively high compression ratios, their small sensors, and the quality of their optics. Many have integrated lenses which cannot be changed. Standard DefinitionMiniDV is the predominant standard definition consumer video acquisition format. Steven Soderbergh used the popular Canon XL2 MiniDV camera while shooting Full Frontal. The Danny Boyle directed British horror film, 28 Days Later was also shot on MiniDV using the Canon XL1S, albeit with traditional Panavision 35mm film lenses. One of the first MiniDV cameras used on a feature film was the Sony VX-1000, which was used to shoot Spike Lee's Bamboozled. In 2002, Panasonic released the AG-DVX100, which was the first affordable camcorder to support progressive scan at 24 frames per second, duplicating the motion characteristics of film and allowing for easier transfers to film. This feature made the camera extremely popular with low-budget filmmakers. Though it is priced in the market of prosumer devices, itself, it remains a commercial device. High DefinitionSony, JVC and other vendors have brought high-definition video acquisition to the consumer and prosumer markets with the HDV format. Though it is a totally different format, HDV video is usually recorded to MiniDV tapes, which are inexpensive and widely available. HDV cameras are sold at a wide range of price points, with a wide range of capabilities. Some support progressive shooting modes. Panasonic also offers a high-definition camera in this price range, the AG-HVX200. Although it is priced at $5,995 (MSRP), it is a commercial camera, not a consumer or "prosumer" device. The AG-HVX200 uses Panasonic's DVCPRO HD format, which is also used by Panasonic's higher-end cameras. The camera, which also supports progressive video capture, is regarded as the HD successor to the popular AG-DVX100, mentioned above. Notably, the camera captures HD video to P2 solid-state memory cards rather than tape. The AG-HVX200 is also notable for its variable frame rate feature, which is unusual in the video camera world. Digital vs. film cinematographyTechnical ConsiderationsPredictabilityWhen shooting on film, response to light is determined by what film stock is chosen. A cinematographer can choose a film stock he or she is familiar with, and expose film on set with a high degree of confidence about how it will turn out. Because the film stock is the main determining factor, results will be substantially similar regardless of what camera model is being used. In contrast, when shooting digitally, response to light is determined by the CMOS or CCD sensor(s) in the camera, and every camera is different. A cinematographer shooting digitally must have an intimate familiarity with the specific camera model being used, to reliably predict how shots will turn out. This problem is exacerbated by the lower dynamic range of most digital sensors, which makes it more difficult to fix incorrect exposure in post-production. While the performance of digital acquisition is typically harder to predict by eye, on-set monitoring can help address this issue. On-set monitoring allows the cinematographer to see the actual images that are captured, right on the set, which is impossible with film. With a properly calibrated high-definition display, on-set monitoring, in conjunction with data displays such as histograms, waveforms, RGB parades, and various types of focus assist, can give the cinematographer a far more accurate picture of what is being captured than is possible with film. However, all of this equipment may impose costs in terms of time and money, and may not be possible to utilize in difficult shooting situations. Film cameras do often have a video assist that captures video though the camera to allow for on-set playback, but its usefulness is largely restricted to judging action and framing. Because this video is not derived from the image that is actually captured to film, it is not very useful for judging lighting, and because it is typically only NTSC-resolution, it is often useless for judging focus. PortabilityAlthough very compact and inexpensive digital cameras are becoming more widely available, the image quality is not yet up to the level normally desired for theatrical release. High-end digital cinema cameras tend to be quite large, and some models require bulky external recording mechanisms (though in some cases only a small strand of optical fiber is necessary to connect the camera and the recording mechanism). In contrast, there are compact 35mm film cameras that produce the full 35mm film resolution and accept standard 35mm lenses. Smaller form-factor digital cinema cameras such as the Red One and SI-1920HDVR may make digital acquisition more competitive in this respect. The SI-1920HDVR, in particular, with its detachable camera head, should allow for high-quality images to be captured by a camera/lens package that is far smaller than is practically achievable with a 35mm film camera. Dynamic RangeThe sensors in most digital cinema cameras have less exposure latitude (dynamic range) than modern motion picture film stocks. In particular, they tend to 'blow out' highlights, losing detail in very bright parts of the image. If highlight detail is lost, it is impossible to recapture in post-production. Cinematographers can learn how to adjust for this type of response using techniques similar to those used when shooting on reversal film, which has a similar lack of latitude in the highlights. They can also use on-set monitoring and image analysis to ensure proper exposure. In some cases it may be necessary to 'flatten' a shot, or reduce the total contrast that appears in the shot, which may require more lighting to be used. Many people also believe that highlights are less visually pleasing with digital acquisition, because digital sensors tend to 'clip' them very sharply, whereas film produces a 'softer' roll-off effect with over-bright regions of the image. Some more recent digital cinema cameras attempt to more closely emulate the way film handles highlights, though how well they achieve this is a matter of some dispute. A few cinematographers have started deliberately using the 'harsh' look of digital highlights for aesthetic purposes. One notable example of such use is Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series). Digital acquisition typically offers better performance than film in low-light conditions, allowing less lighting and in some cases completely natural or practical lighting to be used for shooting, even indoors. This low-light sensitivity also tends to bring out shadow detail. Some directors have tried a "best for the job" approach, using digital acquisition for indoor or night shoots, and traditional film for daylight exteriors. ResolutionSubstantive debate over the subject of film resolution vs. digital image resolution is clouded by the fact that it is difficult to meaningfully and objectively determine the resolution of either. Film is an analog medium. It does not have discrete pixels.[dubious — see talk page] As it is scanned at higher and higher resolutions, image detail is increasingly masked by grain, but it is difficult to determine at what point trying to extract more detail becomes unproductive. Moreover, different film stocks have widely varying ability to resolve detail. Determining resolution in digital acquisition seems straightforward, but is significantly complicated by the way digital camera sensors work in the real world. This is particularly true in the case of high-end digital cinematography cameras that use a single large bayer pattern CMOS sensor. A bayer pattern sensor does not sample full RGB data at every point; each pixel is biased toward red, green or blue[4], and a full color image is assembled from this checkerboard of color by processing the image through a demosaicing algorithm. Generally with a bayer pattern sensor, actual resolution will fall somewhere between the "native" value and half this figure, with different demosaicing algorithms producing different results. In general, it is widely accepted that film exceeds the resolution of HDTV formats and the 2K digital cinema format, but there is still significant debate about whether 4K digital acquisition can match the results achieved by scanning 35mm film at 4K, as well as whether 4K scanning actually extracts all the useful detail from 35mm film in the first place. One important thing to note is that the process of optical duplication, used to produce theatrical release prints for movies originated both on film and digitally, causes significant loss of resolution. If a 35mm negative does capture more detail than 4K digital acquisition, ironically this may only be visible when a 35mm movie is scanned and projected on a 4K digital projector. Grain & NoiseFilm has a characteristic grain structure, which many people view positively, either for aesthetic reasons or because it has become associated with the look of 'real' movies. Different film stocks have different grain, and cinematographers may use this for artistic effect. Digitally acquired footage lacks this grain structure. Electronic noise is sometimes visible in digitally acquired footage, particularly in dark areas of an image or when footage was shot in low lighting conditions and gain was used. Some people believe such noise is a workable aesthetic substitute for film grain, while others believe it has a harsher look that detracts from the image. Well shot, well lit images from high-end digital cinematography cameras can look almost eerily clean. Some people believe this makes them look "plasticy" or computer generated, while others find it to be an interesting new look, and argue that film grain can be emulated in post-production if desired. Since most theatrical exhibition still occurs via film prints, the super-clean look of digital acquisition is often lost before moviegoers get to see it, because of the grain in the film stock of the release print. Digital Intermediate WorkflowThe process of using digital intermediate workflow, where movies are color graded digitally instead of via traditional photochemical finishing techniques, is becoming increasingly common, largely because of the greater artistic control it provides to filmmakers. In order to utilize digital intermediate workflow with film, the camera negative must be processed and then scanned. High quality film scanning is time consuming and expensive. With digital acquisition, this step can be skipped, and footage can go directly into a digital intermediate pipeline as digital data. Some filmmakers have years of experience achieving their artistic vision using the techniques available in a traditional photochemical workflow, and prefer that finishing process. While it would be theoretically possible to use such a process with digital acquisition by creating a film negative on a film recorder, in general digital acquisition is not a suitable choice if a traditional finishing process is desired. SoundFilms are traditionally shot with dual-system recording, where picture is recorded on camera, and sync sound is recorded to a separate sound recoding device. In post-production, picture and sound are synced up. Many cameras used for digital cinematography can record sound internally, already in sync with picture. This eliminates the need for syncing in post, which can lead to faster workflows. However, most sound recording is done by specialist operators, and the sound will likely be separated and further processed in post-production anyway. Also, recording sound to the camera requires running additional cables to the camera, which may be problematic in some shooting situations, particularly in shots where the camera is moving. ArchivingMany people feel there is significant value in having a film negative master for archival purposes. As long as the negative does not physically degrade, it will be possible to recover the image from it in the future, regardless of changes in technology. In contrast, even if digital data is stored on a medium that will preserve its integrity, changes in technology may render the format unreadable or expensive to recover over time. For this reason, film studios distributing digitally-originated films often make film-based separation masters of them for archival purposes. EconomicsLow-budget / Independent FilmmakingImage:Courteney Cox in November.jpg A scene from November (2004), one of many low-budget films shot on digital video. For the last 25 years, many respected filmmakers like Francis Ford Coppola and George Lucas have predicted that electronic or digital cinematography would bring about a revolution in filmmaking, by dramatically lowering costs. For low-budget and so-called "no-budget" productions, digital cinematography on prosumer cameras clearly has cost benefits over shooting on 35mm or even 16mm film. The cost of film stock, processing, telecine, negative cutting, and titling for a feature film can run to tens of thousands of dollars according to From Reel to Deal, a book on independent feature film production by Dov S-S Simens. Costs directly attributable to shooting a low-budget feature on 35mm film could be $50,000 on the low side, and over twice that on the high side. In contrast, obtaining a high-definition prosumer camera and sufficient tape stock to shoot a feature can easily be done for under $10,000, or significantly less if, as is typically the case with 35mm shoots, the camera is rented. If a 35mm print of the film is required, an April 2003 article in American Cinematographer found the costs between shooting film and video are roughly the same. The benefit to shooting video is that the cost of a film-out is only necessary should the film find a distributor to pick up the cost. When shooting film, the costs are upfront and cannot be deferred in such a manner. On the other hand, the same article found 16mm film to deliver better image quality in terms of resolution and dynamic range. Given the progress digital acquisition, film recording, and related technologies have seen in the last few years, it is unclear how relevant this article is today. Most extremely low-budget movies never receive wide distribution, so the impact of low-budget video acquisition on the industry remains to be seen. It is possible that as a result of new distribution methods and the long tail effects they may bring into play, more such productions may find profitable distribution in the future. Traditional distributors may also begin to acquire more low-budget movies as better affordable digital acquisition eliminates the liability of low picture quality, and as they look for a means to escape the increasingly drastic "boom and bust" financial situation created by spending huge amounts of money on a relatively small number of very large movies, not all of which succeed. HollywoodOn higher budget productions, the cost advantages of digital cinematography are not as significant, primarily because the costs imposed by working with film are simply not major expenses for such productions. Two recent films, Sin City and Superman Returns, both shot on digital tape, had budgets of $40 million and close to $200 million respectively. The cost savings in these cases were negligible as a percentage of the total production budgets. Rick McCallum, a producer on Attack of the Clones, has commented that the production spent $16,000 for 220 hours of digital tape, where a comparable amount of film would have cost $1.8 million. However, this does not necessarily indicate the actual cost savings. The low incremental cost of shooting additional footage may encourage filmmakers to use far higher shooting ratios. With film, the production may be more frugal and work with a lower shooting ratio, so the cost difference may not be as great as it seems. This lower shooting ratio may even save time in editing, lowering post-production costs somewhat.[citation needed] Shooting in digital necessitates a digital intermediate, which is more expensive than a photochemical finish. However, a digital intermediate may be desirable even with film acquisition because of the creative control it provides, or a film may have a large number of effects shots which would require digital processing anyway. Industry Acceptance of Digital Cinematography For over a century, virtually all movies have been shot on film and nearly every film student learns about how to handle 16mm and 35mm film. Digital acquisition, particularly high-end digital acquisition, which is very new to the market, has not had the time to become widely accepted. The overwhelming majority of commercial movies are still shot on film, as are most American prime-time television programs and commercials. As of mid-2006 only a small percentage of high-end movie productions have used digital cinema cameras. Some notable high-profile directors have stated that they have been "converted" to digital cinematography and will never return to using film, including George Lucas, Robert Rodriguez, Quentin Tarantino, David Fincher, David Lynch, Lars von Trier, and James Cameron. Lucas, however, modified his stance somewhat in a recent interview, stating that he "would use whatever is more appropriate to the particular project." Directors Steven Spielberg, M. Night Shyamalan, Martin Scorsese, Ridley Scott and Oliver Stone belong to the opposing camp, and have vowed to continue to shoot on film. Lower-budget and limited-release movies have adopted digital cinematography at a somewhat faster pace, although some filmmakers with enough funding still choose to shoot such productions on 16mm film, the traditional medium for that market segment. As the digital intermediate process gains wider use even for finishing movies shot on film, and as digital acquisition technology continues to improve, it seems likely digital cinematography will continue to gain wider acceptance. ReferencesSee also
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