Chinese astronomy

Astronomy in China has a very long history. Oracle bones from the Yin Dynasty (2nd millennium BC) record eclipses and novae. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BC until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 16th century. The practice of astronomy in China was fundamentally changed by extended contact with Western astronomy. Today, China continues to be active in astronomy, with many observatories and its own space program.

Early history

Purpose of astronomical observations in the past

One of the main functions was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar , but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, intercalation had to be done.

The Chinese calender was considered to be symbol of a dynasty. As dynasties would rise and fall, astronomers and astrologers of each period would often prepare a new calendar to be made, with observations for that purpose.

Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of "guest stars" which suddenly appeared among the fixed stars. The supernova that created the Crab Nebula in 1054 is an example of a guest star observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies.

Chinese constellations

History of Chinese constellations

The divisions of the sky began with the Northern Dipper and the 28 mansions.

In early 1980s, a tomb was found at Xi Shui Po (西水坡) in Pu Yang, Henan Province. There were some clamshells and bones forming the images of the Azure Dragon, the [White Tiger] and the Northern Dipper. It is believed that the tomb belongs to the Neolithic Age, about 6,000 years ago.

Star names relating to the the 28 lunar mansions were found on oracle bones dating back to the Wuding Period, about 3,200 years ago.

In 1978, a lacquer box was excavated from the tomb of Zeng Hou Yin in Suixian, Hubei Province. Names of the 28 lunar missions were found on the cover of the box, proofing that the use of this classification system was made before 433 BC.

As lunar mansions have such an ancient origin, the meaning of most of their names have become obscure. Even worse, name of each lunar mansion consists of only one Chinese word, and the meaning of which could vary at different times in history. So the meaning of the names are sill under disscusion.

Besides 28 lunar mansions, most constellations are based on the works of [Shi Shen-fu] and Gan De, who were astrologists during the period of Warring States (481 BC - 221 BC) in China.

In the late period of the Ming Dynasty, the agricultural scientist and mathematician Xu Guangqi (1562 - 1633 AD) introduced 23 additional constellations which are near to the Celestial South Pole, which are based on star catalogues from the West (see Matteo Ricci).

Classification

Unlike the West, where the starry sky is a pantheon of Greek legendary hero and mystic creatures, the Chinese treat the heavens as a miniature of their earthly world, a reflection of their feudal society.

Star catalogues and Maps

Star catalogues

Before the Greek Hipparchus created the first star catalogue of the Western world during the 2nd century BC, the 4th century BC astronomers Shi Shen and Gan De were the first in history to compile a star catalogue. Publishings of the two were known as Star Manual of Masters Gan and Shi (甘石星經), the world's first star catalogue. Although this catalogue in full was eventually lost over the centuries, luckily part of its content was referred to and used by other Chinese documents such as [Treatise on Astrology in the Kaiyuan Regin] (開元占經) during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (712 - 756 AD). After analyzing and providing summary on the work of Gan De adn Shi Shen, Tang era astronomers mentioned the names of more than 800 stars that were found, 121 of them marked with positions. ^[1]

Another Chinese classic is the Star Manual of Master Wuxian (巫咸星經). Its authorship is still in dispute because it mentioned names of Twelve Countries, which did not exist in the Shang Dynasty, the era of which it was supposed to have been written. Moverover, it was customary in the past for the Chinese to forge works of notable scholars, as this could lead to a possible explanation for the inconsistencies found.

The Han Dynasty astronomer and inventor Zhang Heng (78 - 139 AD) not only catalogued some 2500 different stars, but also recognized over 100 different constellations. Zhang Heng also published his work Ling Xian, a summary of different astronomical theories in China at the time. In subsequent period of the Three Kingdoms (220 - 280 AD), Chen Zhuo (陳卓) combined the work of his predecessors, forming another star catalogue. This time 283 constellations and 1464 stars were listed. The astronomer Guo Shoujin of the Yuan Dynasty (1279 - 1368 AD) created a new catalogue which was believed to contain thousands of stars. Unfortunately, many of documents at that period were destroyed, including that of Shoujin. Imperial Astronomical Instruments (儀象考成) published in 1757 containing 3083 stars exactly.

Star maps

The Chinese drew many maps of stars in the past centuries. The most famous one is perhaps the map found in Dunhuang, Gansu. Uncovered by the British archaeologist Marc Aurel Stein in 1907, the star map was brought to the British Museum in London.

The map was drawn on paper and represents the complete sky with more than 1,350 stars. Though ancient Babylonians and Greeks also observed the sky and catalogued stars, no such complete record of the stars may exist or survive. Hence this is the oldest chart of the actual skies in the present.

Stars appearing on the chart were marked with three colors: black for the stars of Gan, yellow for the stars of Shi, and white fore the stars of Wuxian.

According to recently studies, the map may date the manuscript to as early as the 7th century AD (Tang Dynasty). Scholars believe the star map dating from 705 to 710 AD, which is the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang. Some experts from the West think the chart may be a copy of an earlier existing document. There are some texts (Monthly Ordinances, 月令) describing the movement of the sun among the sky each month, which was not based on the observation at that time.

Equipment and innovation

Armillary sphere (渾儀)

It is believed that the Chinese developed armillary spheres before the first century BC. At the very beginning they were simple in terms of . Zhang Hang and other astronomers in the Han dynasty further developed it. None of them were survived however.

By adding new rings, some new functions occurred. Armillary sphere was getting complex because astronomers added too much rings in it, which blocked astronomers from observing the skies. Abridged armilla is the solution.

Abridged armilla (簡儀)

Designed by famous astronomers Guo Shoujing in 1276 AD, it solved most problems found in armillary spheres at that time.

The primary structure of Abridged Armilla contains two large rings that are perpendicular to each other, of which one is parallel with the equatorial plane and is accordingly called “equatorial ring”, and the other is a double-ring which is perpendicular to the center of the equatorial ring, revolves around a metallic shaft, and is called “right ascension double-ring”.

The double-ring holds within itself a sighting tube with crosshairs. When observing, astronomers aim the star with the sighting tube, stars’ position can be read out at the dials of the equatorial ring and the right ascension double-ring.

A foreign missionary melted the instrument in 1715 AD. The survived one was built in 1437 AD, and was taken by Germany and stored in France Embassy in 1990 during Eight-Nation Alliance. Under the pressure of international public voice the German returned it to China. In 1933 it was placed in Purple Mountain Observatory for preventing it being destroy in war. In the 1980s it had already been eroded seriously and was nearly destroy. To deal with it Nanjing government spent 11 months to repair it.

Celestial globe (渾象) before Qing Dynasty

Besides star maps, the Chinese also make Celestial globes, which show stars position liked a star map and can present the the actual sky in a specific time. Because of its Chinese name, the Chinese always make it up with Armillary sphere, which is just one word different (渾象 vs. 渾儀).

According to records, the first Celestial globe was made by Geng Shou-chang (耿壽昌) between 70BC and 50BC. In Ming Dynasty, celestial globe at that time was a huge globe, showing with the 28 mansions, celestial equator and ecliptic. But just like many other equipment, none of them survived.

Celestial globe (天體儀) in Qing Dynasty

Celestial globe was named 天體儀 in Qing Dynasty. The one in Beijing Ancient Observatory was made by Belgian missionary Ferdinand Verbiest (南懷仁) 1673 AD. Unlike other Chinese celestial globes, it employs 360 degrees rather than the 365.24 degrees (which is a standard in ancient China). It is also the Chinese-first globe which shows constellations near to the Celestial South Pole.

The Water-powered Armillary Sphere and Celestial Globe Tower (水運儀象台)

Starting designed by Su Song (蘇頌) and his colleagues in 1086 AD and finished in 1092 AD, this large instrument was made up of an armillary sphere (渾儀), a celestial globe (渾象)and a mechanical chronograph . However 35 years later the invading Jurchen army dismantled the tower in 1127 AD. The armillary sphere part was brought to Beijing, hence the tower was never successfully reinstated.

Fortunately two versions of Su Song’s book survived so studying the mechanism is possible. For further please see Su Song.

Observatory

• Beijing Ancient Observatory
• Astro Observatory

Jesuit activity in China

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries brought Western astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. After the Galileo affair early in the 17th century, the Roman Catholic Jesuit order was required to adhere to geocentrism and ignore the heliocentric teachings of Copernicus and his followers, even though they were becoming standard in European astronomy.^{[citation needed]} Thus, the Jesuits shared an Earth-centered and largely pre-Copernican astronomy with their Chinese hosts.^{[citation needed]}

Modern astronomy

Modern western-style astronomy entered China in the 19th century.

Famous Chinese astronomers

• Guo Shoujing
• Shi Shen
• Su Song
• Xu Guangqi
• Zhang Heng

See also

• Book of Silk
• Chinese astrology
• Chinese constellation
• History of astronomy
• Timeline of Chinese astronomy

Further reading

• Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, edited by Helaine Selin. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997. S.v. "Astronomy in China," by Ho Peng Yoke.
• Sun Xiaochun, "Crossing the Boundaries Between Heaven and Man: Astronomy in Ancient China," in Astronomy Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Astronomy, edited by H. Selin, pp. 423-454. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2000.
• Chan Ki-hung: Chinese Ancient Star Map, Leisure and Cultural Services Department, 2002, ISBN 962-7054-09-7
• Gems of the ancient Chinese astronomy relics, ISBN 962-7797-03-0

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