Chief Mate

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Chief Mate

Image:Chief-mate-cargo-handling.jpg The Chief Mate is customarily in charge of the ship's cargo and deck crew.
Department:	Deck
Reports to:	Captain
Watch:	04:00 to 08:00, 16:00 to 20:00
Typical Responsibilities:	Cargo Officer
Requirements:	At least chief mate's license

Main article: Seafarer's professions and ranks

A Chief Mate (C/M) or Chief Officer is a licensed member and head of the deck department of a merchant ship. The chief mate is customarily a watchstander and is in charge of the ship's cargo and deck crew.^[1]

The chief mate is responsible to the captain for the safety and security of the ship. Responsibilties include the crew's welfare and training in areas such as safety, firefighting, search and rescue.

Contents 1 Cargo Officer 1.1 Transverse stability 1.2 Free surface effect 1.3 Ship's trim and freeboard 1.4 Hogging and sagging 1.5 Damage Stability 2 Deck Department 3 Watchstanding 4 Sea watch 4.1 Navigation 4.2 Traffic management 4.3 Emergencies 5 Controlling ship operations 6 Licensing 6.1 United States 7 Notable First Mates and Chief Mates 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links

Cargo Officer

As cargo officer, a chief mate oversees the loading, stowage, securing and unloading of cargoes. Moreover the chief mate is accountable for the care of cargo during the voyage. This includes a general responsibility for the stability of the ship and special care for cargoes that are dangerous, hazardous or harmful.

A ship is balanced precariously under the best of conditions upon the water and is subject to a number of forces, such as wind, swells, and storms which could capsize it. The cargo officer uses tools like ballasting and load balancing to optimize the ship's performance for the type of environment expected to be encountered.

The four main objectives are to cause the ship to have good:

1. transverse stability, which moderates rolling
2. trim, which adjusts the depth of the bow and stern
3. freeboard, which provides reserve buoyancy
4. and hogging and sagging, which describe longitudinal stresses

Transverse stability

Further information: Metacentric height

Transverse stability describes the set of forces that act to right a vessel that is heeling over to one side. This system creates the familiar side-to-side rolling that often causes seasickness. One of the chief mate's main responsibilities is loading cargo in such a way as to maximize transverse stability without causing undesirable side effects.

One of these forces is called the righting arm. It comes from gravity pulling down on the hull, effectively acting on its center of gravity.

The second force, called buoyancy, pushes the hull upwards; effectively acting along the vertical line passing through the center of buoyancy and the metacenter above it.

These two forces together create a torque which rotates the hull upright again and is proportional to the horizontal distance between the center of gravity and the metacenter.

The distance from point "G" in the diagram to point "M" is called the metacentric height or "GM". It is important because the righting force is proportional to the metacentric height times the sine of the angle of heel.

GM has a direct relationship with a ship's rolling period. A ship with a small GM will be "tender" - have a long roll period - a low GM increases the risk of capsizing in rough weather(see HMS Captain) and more likely to develop "synchronized rolling". It also puts the vessel at risk of potential for large angles of heel if the cargo or ballast shifts (see Cougar Ace). The metacentric height will be reduced further and make it even less stable if a ship with low GM is damaged and partially flooded.

On the other hand, a metacentric height that is too large can cause a vessel to be overly "stiff." An overly stiff vessel rolls with a short period and high amplitude. Such excessive stability is uncomfortable for passengers and crew because it quickly snaps back upright after a wave or wind gust which heeled it over has passed. This can lead to damage to the ship and cause cargo to break loose or shift. A passenger ship will typically have a long rolling period for comfort, perhaps 28 seconds while a tanker or freighter might have a rolling period of 13 to 15 seconds.

Free surface effect

Further information: Free surface effect

One of the bigger challenges a Chief Mate faces is offsetting the damage that the free surface effect can have on the ship's stability.

In tanks or spaces that are partially filled with a fluid^[2] The surface of the liquid stays level as the tank is inclined. This causes a displacement of the centre of gravity of the tank or space. The effect is similar to that of carrying a large flat tray of water that tips. The water rushes to one side, which exacerbates the tip even further.

The significance of this effect is proportional to the square of the width of the tank or compartment. Two baffles separating the area into thirds will reduce the displacement of the centre of gravity of the fluid by a factor of 9. This is always of significance in ship fuel tanks or ballast tanks, tanker cargo tanks, and in flooded or partially flooded compartments of damaged ships. Another concern with free surface effect is that a positive feedback loop can be established. This occurs when the duration of the roll is equal or almost equal to the period of the motion of the centre of gravity in the fluid, resulting in each roll increasing in magnitude until the loop is broken or the ship capsizes.

Ship's trim and freeboard

Another challenge the Chief Mate faces while managing the ship's cargo is maintaining proper trim and freeboard.

A ship's trim is the relation of the depth of the bow of the ship to the depth of the stern. A ship that has too much weight concentrated forward of its center of buoyancy is "trimmed nose-down," will move through the water much less efficiently and is at greater risk for taking on water.

Freeboard is a measure of a ship's reserve buoyancy, or how much weight can be added to the ship before it sinks. International regulations call for a load line or Plimsoll line to be painted on each side of ship over a certain tonnage. This symbol marks the level to which the ship can be safely loaded. The ship floats lower and the symbol descends farther into the water as cargo is brought on board.

Before these symbols were made compulsory many ships were lost due to overloading.^[3] The British social reformer and politician Samuel Plimsoll advocated improved safety standards at sea. The Plimsoll line bears his name in his honour.

These marks are used to ensure adequate reserve buoyancy for the intended area and season of operation.^[4] For example, ships encounter rougher conditions in winter as opposed to summer, and in the North Atlantic as opposed to tropical waters. The load line has separate fresh water marks because ships float deeper in fresh water.

Hogging and sagging

Further information: Hogging (Naval) and Sagging (Naval)

On cargo ships, hogging and sagging are the result of poor load management, and must be dealt with by the chief mate.

Hogging is the stress a ship's hull or keel experiences that causes the center of the keel to bend upward.

A cause of dynamic hogging is when a wave is the same length as the ship and the crest of the wave is amidships. This causes the middle of the ship to bend up slightly, and depending of the level of bend, may cause the hull to snap or crack. This may have been what sank the Prestige off Spain on 19 November 2002.

Sagging is the stress a ship's hull or keel is placed under when a wave is the same length as the ship and the ship is in the trough of two waves. This causes the middle of the ship to bend down slightly, and depending of the level of bend, may cause the hull to snap or crack. This may have been what sank the Prestige off Spain on 19 November 2002.

Damage Stability

The loss of stability from flooding is due to the free surface effect. Subsequently, water accumulating in the hull will be in the bilges, lowering the centre of gravity and actually increasing the metacentric height. However once the ship is inclined, the centre of gravity of the fluid in the bilge moves to the low side, resulting in a list, which will reduce the righting lever (the tendency of the ship to right itself). The Chief Mate has advanced training in damage stability.

Deck Department

The chief mate is the department head of the deck department. This involves administrative tasks such as scheduling work, quality control, coordinating with other departments, and conflict resolution. The chief mate also compiles supply, overtime, and cost control records, and requisitions or purchases stores and equipment.

The deck department's main work is proper watchstanding and the maintenance of the ship's hull, cargo gear, and accommodations as well as the ship's life saving and firefighting appliances. A boatswain may be employed depending on the size and employment of the ship. If carried, the boatswain, generally a senior able seaman will act as supervisor of the ship's deck crew and the chief mate's representative on deck.

Larger cargo and passenger ships generally carry at least three able seamen and may carry ordinary seamen, due to IMO regulations. Other ships officers, generally a Second Mate and Third Mate, are also members of the deck department.

Watchstanding

A chief mate is almost always a watchstander. In port and at sea, the chief mate is responsible to the captain for keeping the ship, its crew, and its cargo safe for eight hours each day. Traditionally, the chief mate stands a "4-8" watch: from 4am until 8am and 4pm until 8pm. On watch, the mate must enforce all applicable regulations, such as safety of life at sea and pollution regulations. In port, the watch focuses on duties such as cargo operations, fire and security watches, monitoring communications and the anchor or mooring lines.

IMO regulations require the officer be fluent in English. This is required for a number of reasons, such as ability to use charts and nautical publications, to understand weather and safety messages, communicate with other ships and coast stations, and to be able to work with a multi-lingual crew.

Sea watch

At sea, the mate on watch has three fundamental duties: navigate the ship, safely avoid traffic, and respond to any emergencies that may arise. Mates generally stand watch with able seamen who act as helmsman and lookout. The helmsman executes turns and the lookout reports dangers such as approaching ships. These roles are often combined to a single helmsman/lookout and, under some circumstances, can eliminated completely. The ability to smartly handle a ship is key to safe watchstanding. A ship's draught, trim, speed and under-keel clearance all affect its turning circle and stopping distance. Other factors include the effects of wind and current, squat, shallow water and similar effects. Shiphandling is key when the need arises to rescue a man overboard, to anchor, or to moor the ship.

The officer must also be able to transmit and receive signals by Morse light and to use the International Code of Signals.

Navigation

Celestial, terrestrial, electronic, and coastal navigation techniques are used to fix a ship's position on a navigational chart. The officer directs the helmsman to keep to track, accounting for effects of winds, tides, currents and estimated speed. The officer uses supplemental information from nautical publications, such as Sailing Directions, tide tables, Notices to Mariners, and radio navigational warnings to keep the ship clear of danger in transit.

Safety demands the mate be able to quickly solve steering control problems and to calibrate the system for optimum performance. Since magnetic and gyro compasses show the course to steer, the officer must be able to determine and correct for compass errors.

Weather's profound effect on ships requires the officer be able to interpret and apply meteorological information from all available sources. This requires expertise in weather systems, reporting procedures and recording systems.

Traffic management

The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea are a cornerstone of safe watchkeeping. Safety requires that one live these rules and follows the principles of safe watchkeeping. Maximizing bridge teamwork, including the practice of Bridge Resource Management, is an emerging focus in watchkeeping.

The main purpose for Radar and Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA) on a ship's bridge is to move safely among other vessels. These instruments help to accurately judge information about prominent objects in the vicinity, such as:

• range, bearing, course and speed
• time and distance of closest point of approach
• course and speed changes

These factors help the officer apply the COLREGS to safely maneuver in the vicinity of obstructions and other ships.

Unfortunately, radar has a number of limitations, and ARPA inherits those limitations and adds a number of its own. Factors such as rain, high seas, and dense clouds can prevent radar from detecting other vessels. Further, dense traffic and course and speed changes can confuse ARPA units. Finally, human errors such as inaccurate speed inputs and confusion between true and relative vectors add to the limitations of the radar/ARPA suite.

Under the best conditions, the radar operator must be able to optimize system settings and detect divergences between an ARPA system and actual conditions. Information obtained from radar and ARPA must be treated with scrutiny: over reliance on these systems has sunk ships. The officer must understand system performance, limitations and accuracy, tracking capabilities and limitations, and processing delays, and the use of operational warnings and system tests.

Emergencies

Emergencies can happen at any time. The officer must be equipped to safeguard passengers and crew. The officer must be able to take initial action after a collision or a grounding. Responsibilities include performing damage assessment and control, understanding the procedures for rescuing persons from the sea, assisting ships in distress, and responding to any emergency which may arise in port.

The officer must understand distress signals and know the IMO Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual.

Controlling ship operations

The officer has special responsibilities to keep the ship, the people on board, and the environment safe. This includes keeping the ship seaworthy during fire and loss of stability, providing aid and maintaining safety during man overboard, abandoning ship, and medical emergencies.

Understanding ship's stability, trim, stress, and the basics of ship's construction is a key to keeping a ship seaworthy. The mate must know what to do in cases of flooding and loss of buoyancy. Fire is also a constant concern. Knowing the classes and chemistry of fire, fire-fighting appliances, and systems prepares the officer to act fast in case of fire.

An officer must be expert in the use of survival craft and rescue boats. Expertise includes the vessels' launching appliances and arrangements, and their equipment including radio life-saving appliances, satellite EPIRBs, SARTs, immersion suits and thermal protective aids. It's important to be expert in the techniques for survival at sea techniques in case it's necessary to abandon ship.

Officers are trained to perform medical tasks, and follow instructions given by radio or obtained from guides. This training includes what to do in case of common shipboard accidents and illnesses.

Licensing

United States

To become a chief mate (unlimited) in the United States, one must pass a series of examinations and must have had at least 365 days of service while holding a second mate's license. Similarly, one must have worked as a third mate for 365 days to have become a second mate. There are many special cases in license upgrades at the individual level, as licensing regulations change from time to time. A sizable portion of mates still working recieved their licenses before current laws went into effect.

There are two methods to attain an unlimited third mate's license in the United States: to attend a specialized training institution, or to accumulate "sea time" and take a series of traning classes and examintations.^[5]

Training institutions that can lead to a third mate's license include the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy (deck curriculum), the U.S. Coast Guard Academy and U.S. Naval Academy with qualification as an underway officer in charge of a navigational watch, any of the state maritime colleges, the Great Lakes Maritime Academy, or a three-year apprentice mate training program approved by the Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard.

A seaman may start the process of attaining a license after three years of service in the deck department on ocean steam or motor vessels, at least six months of which as able seaman, boatswain, or quartermaster. Then the seaman takes required training courses, and completes on-board assessments. Finally, the mariner can apply to the United States Coast Guard for a Third Mate's license.

A master of 1,600 ton vessels can, under certain circumstances, begin the application process for an unlimited third mate's license.

If approved the applicant must then successfully pass a comprehensive license examination before being issued the license. Hawsepiper is an informal maritime industry term used to refer to an officer who began his or her career as an unlicensed merchant seaman and did not attend a traditional maritime college/academy to earn the officer license.

A ship’s hawse pipe is the pipe passing through the bow section of a ship that the anchor chain passes through. Hawsepiper refers to climbing up the hawse pipe, a nautical metaphor for climbing up the ship's rank structure. Hawsepiper is considered a positive term when said respectfully. Many hawsepipers are proud of their background and use the term to describe themselves.

Several merchant seamen’s unions offer their membership the required training to for career advancement. Similarly, some employers offer financial assistance to pay for the training for their employees. Otherwise, the mariner is responsible for the cost of the required training.

Since the requirements of STCW '95 have been enacted, there have been complaints that the hawsepiper progression path has been made too difficult because of the cost in time and money to meet formal classroom training requirements. These critics assert that the newer requirements will eventually lead to a shortage of qualified mariners, especially in places like the United States.

Notable First Mates and Chief Mates

• Starbuck, chief mate in the book Moby Dick and source of the coffee chain Starbucks' name.
• Joshamee Gibbs, fictional chief mate in the Pirates of the Caribbean
• John Paul Jones was a first mate at age nineteen
• Fletcher Christian, mutineer on the HMS Bounty, he was technically a Master's Mate.
• Roronoa Zoro fictional anime and manga first mate
• Zoe Washburne, fictional first mate of the Firefly
• Henry T. Wilde, first mate of the Titanic
• John Biscoe, English mariner and explorer, often sailed as Chief Mate
• Jabez Peters, Chief Mate of barque Dundonald when it was wrecked on the coast of Disappointment Island

See also

Template:Commons

• Navigation
• Merchant Navy
• United States Merchant Marine
• Captain (nautical)
• Second Mate
• Third Mate
• Ship transport
• Angle of loll
• Strength of ships
• Stevedore
• Intermodal freight transport
• Containerization

Notes

References

• Table A-II/1, Specification of minimum standard of competence for officers in charge of a navigational watch on ships of 500 gross tonnage or more. International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers. Retrieved on March 16, 2007.</ref>
• Barrass, Bryan; Derrett, D.R. (1999). Ship Stability for Masters and Mates. Elsevier. ISBN 0750641010. 
• Hayler, William B. (1989). Merchant Marine Officer's Handbook. Cornell Maritime Pr. ISBN 0870333798. 

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