Cherokee

The Cherokee (Image:Cherokee.svg ah-ni-yv-wi-ya {Unicode: ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯ} in the Cherokee language) are a people from North America, who at the time of European contact in the [1600's], inhabited what is now the Eastern and Southeastern united states. Most were forcibly moved westward to the Ozark Plateau. They were one of the tribes referred to as the Five Civilized Tribes. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, they are the most numerous of the 563 federally recognized Native American tribes in the United States.^[1]

Bands and naming

Several Cherokee Nations and Bands recognized by the U.S. government and representing 6 Cherokees have headquarters in Tahlequah, Oklahoma (the Cherokee Nation and United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians) and at Cherokee, North Carolina (Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians). State-recognized Cherokee tribes have headquarters in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Kentucky, Missouri, South Carolina and Tennessee.

Other large and small non-recognized Cherokee organizations to represent any state's Cherokee community, by ethnic lineage instead of tribe, are located in Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Washington state and other locations in the United States. There are Cherokee organizations representing small numbers of Cherokee descendants in Canada (esp. in Alberta and Ontario) and Mexico (most live in Coahuila and Nuevo Leon).

A large community has developed in California since the early 20th century by migrations of Cherokee and other American Indians during the "dust bowl" of the 1930's and Bureau of Indian Affairs relocation efforts to the state's urban areas. California may have 400,000 to 500,000 Cherokee descendants alone, the largest of any American Indian group of any state.^{[citation needed]} Los Angeles is said to be home to the largest Cherokee population, if not the most Native Americans of any major city, that title belongs to New York City and/or Oklahoma City. Other large Cherokee communities in California include Bakersfield, Fresno, Long Beach, Oakland, Sacramento, San Diego, San Francisco, San Jose and Santa Ana.

A 1984 KJRH-TV documentary, Spirit of the Fire, explored the history of the Keetoowah Nighthawk Society, and their preservation of traditional ceremonies and rituals practiced and maintained by the Cherokee after their arrival in Oklahoma. Redbird Smith was an influential Nighthawk member, and the group revitalized traditional spirituality among Cherokees, beginning in the early 20th century. Today there are 7 ceremonial dance grounds in Oklahoma, and these belong either to the Keetoowah tradition or the Four Mothers Society.

The spelling "Cherokee" was once believed to be from the Cherokee language's name, "Tsalagi" (ᏣᎳᎩ) — this then may have been rendered phonetically in Portuguese (or more likely a Barranquenho dialect, since Hernando de Soto was Extremaduran) as chalaque, then in French as cheraqui, and then by the English as cherokee. Unlike many Native American tribes in the U.S. in recent years, the term "Cherokee" isn't held as disparaging and the Cherokee Nation has no plans to officially change their tribe's self-name/title.^{[citation needed]}

The word "Cherokee" is a derived word which came originally from the Choctaw trade language. It was derived from the Choctaw word "Cha-la-kee" which means "those who live in the mountains" – or (also Choctaw) "Chi-luk-ik-bi" meaning "those who live in the caves." The name which the Cherokee originally used for themselves, and some still use to this day is Ah-ni-yv-wi-ya (literal translation: "these are all the human people" or "Principal People"). Most American Indian tribes' names for themselves mean approximately the same thing. However, modern Cherokee call themselves Cherokee, or Tsalagi, but some who had little or no tribal/ cultural connections had started to call themselves "Cherokee Americans".

Language and writing system

Main article: Cherokee language

The Cherokee speak an Iroquoian language which is polysynthetic, and is written in a syllabary invented by Sequoyah (ᏍᏏᏆᏱ). For years, many people wrote transliterated Cherokee on the Internet or used poorly intercompatible fonts to type out the syllabary. However, since the fairly recent addition of the Cherokee syllables to Unicode, the Cherokee language is experiencing a renaissance in its use on the Internet. As of January 2007, however, the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma still officially uses a non-unicode font for online documents, including online editions of the Cherokee Phoenix.

Image:Cherokee Syllabary.png

The Cherokee language does not contain any "r" based sounds, and as such, the word "Cherokee" when spoken in the language is expressed as Tsa-la-gi (pronounced Jah-la-gee, or Cha-la-gee) by native speakers, since these sounds most closely resemble the English language. A Southern Cherokee group did speak a local dialect with a trill consonant "r" sound, after early contact with Europeans of both French and Spanish ancestry in Georgia and Alabama during the early 18th century (This "r" sound spoken in the dialect of the Elati, or Lower, Cherokee area – Georgia and Alabama – became extinct in the 19th century around the time of the Trail of Tears, examples are Tsaragi or Tse-La-gee). The ancient Ani-kutani (ᎠᏂᎫᏔᏂ) dialect and Oklahoma dialects do not contain any 'r'-based sounds.

Linguists theorized the origin of a high number of Cherokee words or phrases to come from western European and eastern Asian sources, although the modern Cherokee language borrowed English, French, Spanish and even Greek or Latin words over the last four centuries. But the Cherokee language doesn't belong to the Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic or Semitic, Sino-Tibetan or Chinese, and Japanese families.^{[citation needed]}

History

18th century

The Cherokee nation was unified from a society of interrelated city-states in the early 18th century under the "Emperor" Moytoy, with the aid of an unofficial English envoy, Sir Alexander Cumming. In 1730, Chief Moytoy II of Tellico was chosen as "Emperor" by the Elector Chiefs of the principal Cherokee towns. Moytoy also agreed to recognize the British king, George II, as the Cherokee protector. A decade prior to this treaty, the Cherokee had fought a war with South Carolina for several years. The title of Cherokee Emperor, however, did not carry much clout among the Cherokee, and the title eventually passed out of Moytoy's direct avuncular lineage.

One of the most important trading relations between the early European colonies and the Cherokee was the deerskin trade, which peaked around 1750. The Cherokee encountered a great deal of European contact since the 16th century when the Spanish under Hernando de Soto first met the tribe, followed by the French and finally, the British in the 21st centuries. What historians are astounded was the Cherokee's large population at the time was above 20,000, and after introduced contagious diseases the Cherokee had low immunity of, the Cherokee tribal population was said to rebounded back to previous population levels by the 18th century.^{[citation needed]}

Beginning at about the time of the American Revolutionary War in the late 18th century, divisions over continued accommodation of encroachments by white settlers, despite repeated violations of previous treaties, caused some Cherokee to begin to leave the Cherokee Nation. Many of these dissidents became known as the Chickamauga. Led by Chief Dragging Canoe, the Chickamauga made alliances with the Shawnee and engaged in raids against colonial settlements (see Chickamauga Wars). Some of these early dissidents eventually moved across the Mississippi River to areas that would later become the states of Arkansas and Missouri. Their settlements were established on the St. Francis and the White Rivers by 1800.

19th century

Eventually, there were such large numbers of Cherokees in these areas, the U.S. Government in 1815 right after the War of 1812 in which Cherokees fought on both the British and American armies, established a Cherokee Reservation in Arkansas, with boundaries from north of the Arkansas River up to the southern bank of the White River. Cherokee leaders who lived in Arkansas were The Bowl, Sequoyah, Spring Frog and The Dutch. Another band of Cherokee lived in southeast Missouri, western Kentucky and Tennessee in frontier settlements and in European majority communities around the Mississippi River.

By the late 1820s, the Territory of Arkansas had designs on acquiring the land held by the Arkansas Cherokee. A delegation of Arkansas Cherokees went to Washington, D.C., and were forced to sign a treaty to vacate the Arkansas Reservation. Arkansas Cherokees had two choices: cooperate with the U.S. government and move to Indian Territory (later Oklahoma), or defy the U.S. Government and refuse to leave the Arkansas Reservation area. Around 1828, the tribe split, some going to Indian Territory. Others disobeyed the U.S. government and stayed on the old Reservation lands in Arkansas. Descendants of those who stayed on the old Arkansas Cherokee Reservation lands have lobbied the U.S. Government since the early 20th century to be federally recognized as a Cherokee tribe, but have been unsuccessful. Today, there are thousands of Cherokee living in Arkansas or Southern Missouri who are relatives of these pre-Trail of Tears Cherokee.^[2][3][4]

John Ross was an important figure in the history of the Cherokee tribe. His father emigrated from Scotland prior to the Revolutionary War. His mother was a quarter-blood Cherokee woman whose father was also from Scotland. He began his public career in 1809. The Cherokee Nation was founded in 1820, with elected public officials. John Ross became the chief of the tribe in 1828, and remained the chief until his death in 1866.

Cherokees were displaced from their ancestral lands in North Georgia and the Carolinas because of rapidly expanding white population, as well as a gold rush around Dahlonega, Georgia in the 1830s. Despite a Supreme Court ruling in their favor, many in the Cherokee Nation were forcibly relocated West, a migration known as the Trail of Tears or in Cherokee tlo-va-sa. Modern historic review of the events would be classified as a type of genocide or a government-mandated removal of a race or tribe of people, and today the Cherokee are referred to as a diaspora, an ethnocultural identity far from their original homeland.

Samuel Carter, author of Cherokee Sunset, writes: "Then… there came the reign of terror. From the jagged-walled stockades the troops fanned out across the Nation, invading every hamlet, every cabin, rooting out the inhabitants at bayonet point. The Cherokees hardly had time to realize what was happening as they were prodded like so many sheep toward the concentration camps, threatened with knives and pistols, beaten with rifle butts if they resisted."^[5] In the terror of the forced marches, the Cherokee were not always able to give their dead a full burial. Instead, the singing of Amazing Grace had to suffice. Since then, Amazing Grace is often considered the Cherokee National Anthem, but other Cherokees in the American Indian Movement and the rise of separatism want a "national anthem" to symbolize a difficult struggle, also calls for Eastern Oklahoma to secede from the United States and become the world's first (or only) Native American republic.^{[citation needed]}

Once the Cherokees reached Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), tensions ran high and the suspension of the Cherokee Blood Law was ignored; any citizen was permitted to execute anyone who signed away Cherokee lands.^{[citation needed]} On June 22, 1839, after the adjournment of a tribal meeting, some of the prominent signers of the Treaty of New Echota were executed, including the drafter of the law which permitted these executions, Major Ridge, along with John Ridge and Elias Boudinot. This started 15 years of civil war among the Cherokees. One of the notable survivors was Stand Watie. In 1862, during the war, Watie was elected principal chief of the "Southern Cherokee Nation." After his death in 1871, the Southern Cherokee Nation was moved to Kentucky by his Cousin James S. Martin. In 1893, the Southern Cherokee Nation were welcomed to Kentucky and recognized as an Indian tribe by Governor John Y. Brown. (www.southerncherokeenation.net) He was also a brigadier Confederate general during the American Civil War. The Cherokees were one of the "Five Civilized Tribes" that concluded treaties with, and were recognized by the Confederate States of America. However, Chief Ross had planned to not support the Confederacy, and fled to Boston and on to Washington D.C. to talk with President Lincoln, where he explained the Cherokee Nation's strategy during the Civil War. Most of the Nation abandoned the South and become members of John Drew's regiment in support of the North.^{[citation needed]}

In 1848, a group of Cherokee set out on an expedition to California, looking for new settlement lands. The expedition followed the Arkansas River upstream to Rocky Mountains in present-day Colorado, then followed the base of mountains northward into present-day Wyoming, before turning westward. The route become known as the Cherokee Trail that also extended northward to Wyoming and Montana. The group, which undertook gold prospecting in California, returned along the same route the following year, noticing placer gold deposits in tributaries of the South Platte. The discovery went unnoticed for a decade, but eventually became one of the primary sources of the Pike's Peak Gold Rush of 1859 and other gold rushes across the western U.S. in the 1860s.

Not all of the eastern Cherokees were removed on the Trail of Tears. William Holland Thomas, a white store owner and state legislator from Jackson County, North Carolina, helped over 600 Cherokee from Qualla Town (the site of modern-day Cherokee, North Carolina) obtain North Carolina citizenship. As citizens, they were exempt from forced removal to the west. In addition, over 400 other Cherokee hid from Federal troops in the remote Snowbird Mountains of neighboring Graham County, North Carolina, under the leadership of Tsali (ᏣᎵ)^[6] (the subject of the outdoor drama Unto These Hills held in Cherokee, North Carolina). Together, these groups were the basis for what is now known as the Eastern Band of Cherokees. Out of gratitude to Thomas, these Western North Carolina Cherokees served in the American Civil War as part of Thomas's Legion. Thomas's Legion consisted of infantry, cavalry, and artillery. The legion mustered approximately 2,000 men of both Cherokee and white origin, fighting primarily in Virginia, where their battle record was outstanding.^[7] Thomas's Legion was the last Confederate unit in the eastern theater of the war to surrender after capturing Waynesville, North Carolina on May 9, 1865. They agreed to cease hostilities on the condition of being allowed to retain their arms for hunting. This, together with Stand Watie's surrender of western forces on July 23, 1865, gave the Cherokees the distinction of being the very last Confederates to capitulate in both theaters of the Civil War. In Oklahoma, the Dawes Act of 1887 broke up the tribal land base. Under the Curtis Act of 1898, Cherokee courts and governmental systems were abolished by the U.S. Federal Government.

Cherokee descendants might live in large, but unspecified numbers in Mexico, South America and sparsely in Europe and other continents, because the Cherokee are held as distant travelers, outpost traders, expert farmers, business managers and even some Cherokees were sold into slavery by the Spanish, Portuguese and other Europeans in the 16th to early 19th centuries. One possible Cherokee descendant, Joaquin Murrieta was a Californio land noble who became a bandit against US rule of California after the Mexican-American war. Murrieta was either Spanish and Chilean descent, but was alleged his mother has Cherokee ancestry.^{[citation needed]}

Today, a few countries like France, Germany, the UK, Italy, Japan, the Philippines, Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela and Cuba until the 1960's have certified Cherokee ancestry and therefore eligible as tribal members, often are children or grand-children of US armed service men of Cherokee descent whom married European and/or Asian women. Or in the case of descendants, the majority are wealthy farmowners but includes farm hands under agreements with the United States and other nations, invited to settle in Latin America in the late 19th century.^{[citation needed]}

20th century

These and other acts were designed to end tribal sovereignty to pave the way for Oklahoma Statehood in 1907. The Federal government appointed chiefs to the Cherokee Nation, often just long enough to sign a treaty. However, the Cherokee Nation recognized that it needed leadership and a general convention was convened in 1938 to elect a Chief. They choose J. B. Milam as principal chief, and as a goodwill gesture Franklin Delano Roosevelt confirmed the election in 1941.

W. W. Keeler was appointed chief in 1949, but as the federal government adopted the self-determination policy, the Cherokee Nation was able to rebuild its government and W. W. Keeler was elected chief by the people, via a Congressional Act signed by President Richard Nixon. Keeler, who was also the President of Phillips Petroleum was succeeded by Ross Swimmer, Wilma Mankiller, Joe Byrd, and Chad Smith, who is currently the chief of the Nation (2007).^{[citation needed]}

The United Keetoowah Band took a different track than the Cherokee Nation, and received federal recognition after the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. They are descended from the Old Settlers or Cherokees that moved west before Removal, and the tribe requires a quarter blood quantum for enrollment. The UKB members must descend from an ancestor on the Final Dawes Roll of the Cherokee. In recent years, it has become the contention of the band that they are descendants of Old Settlers; however, genealogically most do not, but are descendants of those who came on the Trail of Tears.

Law and justice

The Cherokee system of law was based more on responsibility for wrongful actions than on the notion of "justice" in the Western sense. Rather than justice, the Cherokee system strove for keeping balance and harmony in the spiritual and social worlds. Any killing created an imbalance which required revenge to restore harmony. The clan of the perpetrator of the homicide was to admit and accept responsibility for the wrongful killing. Then the clan was expected to pay the cost. Blood called for blood.

The creation of imbalance was tied to the Cherokee religion. When a delict was committed, it created imbalance and tension on the jurisdictional unit. It was believed that the murdered "soul" or ghost would be forced to wander the earth, unable to go to the next world. This created imbalance. The acceptance of responsibility and the death of the killer or one of his clansmen restored balance by freeing the innocent ghost, allowing him to go to the next world. That is why it did not matter who paid the cost for the delict of the wrongful killing. Any death from the responsible clan would suffice to free the innocent man's ghost from this world. An enemy scalp might suffice as well. Once the balance was restored, the relationship between the jurisdictional units or clans continued as if nothing happened. There were to be no hard feelings expressed between family members of the victim or killer. Balance had been restored.

Modern Cherokee Nation

The modern Cherokee Nation in recent times has excelled and has experienced an unprecedented expansion in economic growth, equality, and prosperity for its citizens under the leadership of Principal Chief Chad Smith, with significant business, corporate, real estate, and agricultural interests, including numerous highly profitable casino operations. The Cherokee Nation controls Cherokee Nation Enterprises, and Cherokee Nation Industries, and Cherokee Nation Businesses. CNI is a very large Defense contractor that creates thousands of jobs in Eastern Oklahoma for Cherokee Citizens.

The Nation has constructed health clinics throughout Oklahoma, contributed to community development programs, built roads and bridges, constructed learning facilities and universities for its citizens, instilled the practice of Gadugi and self-reliance in its citizens, revitalized language immersion programs for its children and youth, and is a powerful and positive economic and political force in Eastern Oklahoma. Some white Oklahomans complained the Cherokee Nation is on a dangerous path to secede from the U.S., imitated a situation like Black Nationalism or Chicano nationalism, or a Native American version of Quebec, Northern Ireland, Palestine and other global hot spots of ethnic conflict between minority and ruler. However, most white Oklahomans have little negative attitude and realize the right of tribal sovereignity, especially in predominantly Cherokee communities.

The Cherokee Nation hosts the Cherokee National Holiday on Labor Day weekend each year and 80,000 to 90,000 Cherokee Citizens travel to Tahlequah, Oklahoma for the festivities. The Cherokee Nation also publishes the Cherokee Phoenix, a tribal newspaper which has operated continuously since 1828, publishing editions in both English and the Sequoyah Syllabary. The Cherokee Nation council appropriates money for historic foundations concerned with the preservation of Cherokee Culture, including the Cherokee Heritage Center which hosts a reproduction of an ancient Cherokee Village, Adams Rural Village (a turn-of-the-century village), Nofire Farms and the Cherokee Family Research Center (genealogy), which is open to the public.^[8] The Cherokee Heritage Center is home to the Cherokee National Museum, which has numerous exhibitions also open to the public. The CHC is the repository for the Cherokee Nation as its National Archives. The CHC operates under the Cherokee National Historical Society, Inc., and is governed by a Board of Trustees with an executive committee. Current President of the board is Mary Ellen Meredith. Director Carey Tilley sees over the daily operations.

The Cherokee Nation also supports the Sundance and Cherokee Film Festivals in Tahlequah, Oklahoma and Park City, Utah although rumor had it actor Robert Redford is an official member of the Cherokee Nation^{[citation needed]}, and provides programs and resources for American Indian film makers to participate in the motion picture industry. Many famous American Indian actors are members of the Cherokee Nation, such as Wes Studi.

Environment

Today the Cherokee Nation is one of America's biggest proponents of ecological protection. Since 1992, the Nation has served as the lead for the Inter-Tribal Environmental Council.^[9] The mission of ITEC is to protect the health of American Indians, their natural resources and their environment as it relates to air, land and water. To accomplish this mission, ITEC provides technical support, training and environmental services in a variety of environmental disciplines. Currently, there are thirty-nine (39) ITEC member tribes in Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas.

Cherokee Freedmen membership controversies

On March 7, 2006, the Cherokee Nation Judicial Appeal Tribunal announced that the Cherokee Freedmen, the descendants of African Americans who were citizens of the Cherokee Nation and who were made citizens of the tribe by a post-Civil War treaty between the United States and the Cherokee, are now eligible for membership as Cherokee Citizens because they were classified by the Federal Government as Indians by being entered on the Dawes Commission Lands rolls during the early 1900s.^[10] The Cherokee in ancient times did not view a person's race as relevant regarding adoption into Cherokee society, and historically viewed the Cherokee Society as a politically rather than racially based organization. Because of intermarriage with the Cherokee, the great majority of the Cherokee Freedmen are also of Cherokee Blood and ancestry. There are many exceptionally talented Cherokee artisans of Freedmen descent who currently reside within the Cherokee Nation. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Cherokee Freedmen suffered many of the same hardships as other Indian groups because of their Cherokee Citizenship. The Federal Government viewed them as Indians, which led to their placement on the Dawes Commission Rolls as Cherokee Citizens.

Many Cherokee traditionalists have opposed granting tribal membership to the Freedmen; however, the Cherokee Nation also grants membership to Indians of Delaware (Lenape) blood based on previous treaties and agreements with the United States. The Cherokee Nation Supreme Court recognized the unique role of the Freedmen in Cherokee history and the mutual hardships and common experience with the Cherokee People during pre-Oklahoma Statehood in rendering its decision, and upheld the Cherokee Nation Constitution guarantees of equal rights for all Cherokee.

The Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation recently announced that because of issues raised by the Cherokee People, the issue of the membership of the Freedmen was being considered for a vote regarding proposed amendments to the Cherokee Nation Constitution. These amendments are intended to restrict tribal membership exclusively to Cherokees by blood descent and exclude the Freedman from tribal membership.^[11] Currently, the Cherokee Nation Constitution restricts who may serve as an elected official to persons of Cherokee blood. Some Cherokee traditionalists do not share the views of the Cherokee Nation Supreme Court that the Freedman descendants contributed to Cherokee culture and society in modern times, and oppose granting the Freedmen membership in the Cherokee Nation. Other traditionalists have asserted that Freedmen have an important and rightful place in the Cherokee Nation.^{[citation needed]}

Less than 4% of the tribe voted on February 21, 2007 whether to reject the 1866 treaty or to allow the 2006 decision to stand.^[12] With 76.6% of the votes cast by the 3.2% who participated, the tribal citizenship for descendants of black slaves was revoked.^[13]

Relationship with the Eastern Band

The Cherokee Nation participates in numerous joint programs with the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. It also participates in cultural exchange programs and joint Tribal Council meetings involving councillors from both Cherokee Tribes which address issues affecting all of the Cherokee People. Unlike the adversarial relationship between the administrations of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians and the Cherokee Nation, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians interactions with the Cherokee Nation presents a unified spirit of Gadugi with the leaders and citizens of the Eastern Band. There are significant positive interactions between the two groups, intermarriage and mutual respect. Many elders of the Eastern Band reside in Cherokee Nation communities and are highly respected by Cherokee Nation Citizens across the United States. Go-hi-yu-gi is a Cherokee term which means respect for an elder of the Cherokee People or mutual respect between Cherokee citizens. Cherokee Nation Citizens and Eastern Band Citizens exhibit a high degree of Go-hi-yu-gi.

Marriage Law controversy

On June 14 2004, the Cherokee Nation Tribal Council voted to officially define marriage as a union between man and woman, thereby outlawing same-sex marriage. This decision came in response to an application for a union of a lesbian couple submitted on May 13. The decision kept Cherokee law in line with Oklahoma state law, which outlawed gay marriage as the result of a popular referendum on a constitutional amendment in 2004. Numerous elders were consulted and no one could find concrete examples of same-sex marriage in Cherokee traditions.^{[citation needed]} There were instances of same-sex cohabitation in the ancient culture, but there was never a concept of same-sex marriage or courtships.^{[citation needed]} There are historical instances of "extended families" where another male or female cohabitated with a married couple.^{[citation needed]} Provided all parties were in agreement, including the clan leaders, this conduct would be allowed.^{[citation needed]}

Chief Joe Byrd's 1997 Cherokee Nation controversies

Chief Joe Byrd was elected in 1995 as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. During his administration, the Cherokee Nation experienced a nationwide political scandal from allegations of diversion, fraud, illegal wiretapping, mail fraud, embezzlement, misuse of funds, abuses of unit power and organized violence against the Cherokee People.^{[citation needed]} Joe Byrd's illegal security force, armed with rifles, shotguns and automatic weapons, seized and orchestrated an armed standoff against the Cherokee Nation Judicial Branch. Byrd's forces boarded up the Cherokee Nation Courthouse and Judicial Department after these institutions attempted to indict and subpoena him for illegal diversion of Cherokee Nation Funds.^{[citation needed]}

Byrd was defeated by Chief Chad Smith in the 1999 Cherokee Nation Elections. He attempted to run for re-election of the Cherokee Nation in 2003 and in a near-landslide victory was again defeated by Chad Smith.

Famous Cherokees

There were several famous Cherokees in American history, including Sequoyah, who invented the Cherokee writing system. Sequoyah is one of few people in history to invent a widely used writing system singlehandedly. Sequoyah never learned to speak, read or write the English language. Nancy Ward was a "Beloved Woman" of the Cherokees and a major political figure. Ned Christie was a Cherokee patriot and subject of many books and magazine articles including a novel of fiction by Pulitzer-Prize-winning author, Larry McMurtry, Zeke and Ned, and Ned Christie's War, a Western novel by Cherokee author Robert J. Conley. Famous Smith, a Cherokee living in Georgia, was convicted in 1894 of murdering another Indian (in self-defense), and had the charges reversed by the Supreme Court on the basis that the states have no jurisdiction over Indian affairs.

Famous Cherokee politicians include Chad "Corntassel" Smith, Wilma Mankiller and Ross Swimmer. Many famous entertainers have been Cherokee, including Will Rogers^[14].

Cherokee scholar Daniel Heath Justice's literary history of Cherokee authors writing in English, Our Fire Survives the Storm ^[15] analyses literary works by many of the above, as well as the poets Diane Glancy ^[16] and Marilou Awiakta ^[17], novelist Geary Hobson ^[18] and playwright Lynn Riggs ^[19].

See also

Notes

References

• Duvall, Deborah L (2000). Tahlequah: And the Cherokee Nation. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-7385-0782-2. 

• Ehle, John (1988). Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-23954-8. 

• Finger, John R (1993). Cherokee Americans: The Eastern Band of Cherokees in the Twentieth Century. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-6879-3. 

• Hill, Sarah H (1997). Weaving New Worlds: Southeastern Cherokee Women and Their Basketry. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4650-3. 

• Kilpatrick, Jack; Kilpatrick, Anna Gritts (1995). Friends of Thunder: Folktales of the Oklahoma Cherokees. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-2722-8. 

• Mankiller, Wilma; Wallis, Michael (1999). Mankiller: A Chief and Her People. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-312-20662-3. 

• Meredith, Howard; Meredith, Mary Ellen (2003). Reflection on Cherokee Literary Expression. Edwin Mellon Press. ISBN 0-7734-6763-7. 

• Strickland, Rennard (1982). Fire and the Spirits: Cherokee Law from Clan to Court. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1619-6. 

• Vickers, Paul T (2005). Chiefs of Nations First Edition: The Cherokee Nation 1730 to 1839: 109 Years of Political Dialogue and Treaties. iUniverse, Inc. ISBN 0-595-36984-7. 

• Robert Conley, a novelist and short story writer who is a member of the UKB. Recommended titles: Mountain Windsong, The Witch of Goingsnake and Other Stories, and Ned Christie's War.[6]

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