Caligula

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31, 12 – January 24, 41), more commonly known by his nickname Caligula, was the third Roman Emperor and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 37 to 41. Known for his extreme extravagance, eccentricity, depravity and cruelty, he is remembered as a despot. He was assassinated in 41 by several of his own guards. The Lives of the Caesars by Roman historian Suetonius gives the most popular account of his reign.

The surviving sources tend to focus upon anecdotes of Caligula's cruelty and alleged insanity. To what extent these sources, in particular Suetonius, are sensationalist and biased is a matter of controversy among modern scholars. Tacitus is often considered to be the most objective Roman historian of this period; unfortunately his account of the reign of Caligula has been lost.

Early life

See Julio-Claudian Family Tree.

Caligula was born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus on August 31, 12, at the resort of Antium, the third of six surviving children born to Augustus's adopted grandson, Germanicus, and Augustus' granddaughter, Agrippina the Elder. Germanicus was son to Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor. Agrippina was daughter to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. They had four other sons: (Tiberius and Gaius Julius, who died young; Nero; Drusus); and three daughters: (Julia Livilla; Drusilla; and Agrippina the Younger). Caligula was nephew to Claudius (the future Emperor).

Gaius' life started out promisingly, due to his illustrious lineage. Germanicus was a grandson to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, Augustus's third wife, as well as an adoptive grandson of Augustus himself. He was thus a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was revered as son of the most beloved general of the Roman Empire. Agrippina was herself a granddaughter of Augustus and Scribonia. She was considered a model of the perfect Roman woman.

As a boy of just two or three, he accompanied his parents on military campaigns in the north of Germania and became the mascot of his father's army.^[1] The soldiers were amused whenever Agrippina would put young Gaius in a miniature soldier's uniform, including boots and armor; and he was soon given his nickname 'Caligula', meaning "Little (Soldier's) boots" in Latin, after the small boots he wore as part of his uniform.^[2]

The question of succession had arisen several times during the life of Augustus, leading to accusations of intrigue within the family. Caligula's father, Germanicus, was believed by many to have been Augustus' preferred successor, though at the time of Augustus' death he was too young to assume the office of Princeps. As a result, Augustus had promoted Tiberius, with the caveat that Tiberius in turn adopt Germanicus. After a successful campaign in Germany and a Triumph in Rome, Germanicus was sent east to distance him from Roman politics; and he died on October 10, 19, claiming to have been poisoned by agents of Tiberius. Relations between his mother and Tiberius deteriorated rapidly amid accusations of murder and conspiracy.

The adolescent Caligula was sent to live first with his great-grandmother, and Tiberius' mother, Livia, in 27, possibly as a hostage. Following Livia's falling-out with Tiberius and her death two years later, he was returned to his Julian relatives and remanded to his grandmother Antonia.^[3] During this period Caligula had little outside contact; his sole companions were his three sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Drusilla, and Julia Livilla. Later, Caligula's accusers would focus on this close relationship, accusing the Emperor of having engaged in incest with all three, but especially Drusilla. Suetonius in particular writes a great deal about these supposed acts.^[4]

In 31, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri until the death of Tiberius and the ascension of Caligula in 37.^[3] By this time, Caligula was already in favor with Tiberius. Suetonius writes of extreme perversions happening on Capri,^[5] as Tiberius was without the people who had managed, in Rome, to keep him in line (Augustus, Livia, his brother Drusus, and his best friend Nerva), so he felt free to indulge in any perversion he desired. Whether this is true or not is hard to say. Unpopular Emperors, such as Tiberius and Caligula, may not have had the whole truth written about them, and gossip is common throughout ancient texts.

At this time, Tiberius' Praetorian Prefect, Sejanus, was extremely powerful in Rome and began forming his own alliances against the Emperor's rule and his possible successors, attempting to court the supporters of the Julian line.^[6] Treason trials were frequent events, as Tiberius in his old age was growing increasingly paranoid and began to rely increasingly upon his friend Sejanus, who had once saved his life.^[7] These trials were the main lever Sejanus used to strengthen his position and dispose of any opposition.

From a very early age Caligula learned to tread very carefully. According to both Tacitus and Suetonius, he surpassed his brothers in intelligence, and was an excellent natural actor, recognizing danger when other members of his family could not.^[8] Caligula survived when most of the other potential candidates to the throne were destroyed. His mother Agrippina was banished to the tiny island of Pandataria, where she starved herself to death. His two oldest brothers, Nero and Drusus, also died. Nero was banished to the island of Ponza, while Drusus' body was found locked in a dungeon with stuffing from his mattress in his mouth, apparently eaten to keep off the hunger pangs.^[9]

Suetonius writes of Caligula's servile nature towards Tiberius and his indifferent nature towards his dead mother and brothers. By his own account, Caligula mentioned years later that this servility was a sham in order to stay alive, and on more than one occasion he very nearly killed Tiberius when his anger overwhelmed him.^[10] An observer said of Caligula: "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!"^[3][8] Caligula proved to have a flair for administration and won further favor with the ailing Tiberius by carrying out many of his duties for him. At night, Caligula would inflict torture on slaves and watch bloody gladiatorial games with glee, implying strong sadism.^[11] In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula the position of honorary quaestorship, the only form of public service Caligula would hold until his reign.^[12]

Emperor

Early reign

When Tiberius died on March 16, 37, his estate and the titles of the Principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius' own grandson, Tiberius Gemellus, who were to serve as joint heirs. Tacitus writes that the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard Naevius Sutorius Macro smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession, much to the joy of the Roman people.^[13] Suetonius even suspects that Caligula may have carried out the killing himself.^[10] Backed by Macro, Caligula had Tiberius’ will with regards to Tiberius Gemellus declared null and void on grounds of insanity, but otherwise carried out Tiberius' wishes.^[14]

Caligula accepted the powers of the Principate as conferred by the Senate, and entered Rome on March 28 amid a crowd that hailed him as "our baby" and "our star".^[15] Caligula is described as the first Emperor who was admired by everyone in "all the world, from the rising to the setting sun."^[16] It was also said by Suetonius that over one-hundred and sixty thousand victims were sacrificed during three months of public rejoicing to usher in his reign.^[17] Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as completely blissful.^[18]

His first acts were said to be generous in spirit, though likely political in nature. He granted bonuses to the Praetorian Guards, destroyed Tiberius' treason papers, declared that treason trials were a thing of the past, recalled exiles, and helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial tax system. He also banished sex offenders from the empire. He was also known to put on lavish spectacles for the public, such as gladiator battles. These acts initially won him favor from the public. Furthermore, he revived free elections for the populace and re-opened the annals of the empire that had been closed under his predecessor Tiberius.^[19]

Caligula was loved by many for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus,^[20] but also because he was not Tiberius.^[21] Moreover, he was, unlike Tiberius, a direct blood descendant of Augustus, and therefore related to Julius Caesar. He was also a great-grandson of Mark Antony.

On becoming Emperor, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt.^[22] He ordered a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli. It was said that the bridge was to rival that of Persian King Xerxes' crossing of the Hellespont. He then proceeded to ride his favorite horse, Incitatus, across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great. This act was in defiance of Tiberius' soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming Emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae".

Illness

Following an auspicious start to his reign, Caligula fell seriously ill in October of 37. Philo is the sole historian to describe this illness^[23], though Cassius Dio mentions it in passing.^[24] Philo claims that Caligula’s increased bath-taking, drinking and sex after becoming Emperor caused him to catch the virus. It was said that the entire empire was paralyzed with sadness and sympathy over Caligula’s affliction. Caligula completely recovered from this illness, but Philo highlights it as a turning point in the reign of Caligula.

Some modern historians have theorized that this physical illness contributed to a later mental illness. Howard Hayes Scullard remarks that Caligula "emerged [from his sickness] as a monster of lust and diabolical cruelty.” ^[25]

There is some debate as to when Caligula's change occurred. Many authors, including Michael Grant (The Twelve Caesars, 1975) and Donna W. Hurley (An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' "Life of C. Caligula", 1993), state that the real break between Caligula and the Senate, and thereafter his extravagant behaviour, did not occur until 39. Though the exact cause of the argument between the young Caesar and the Senate is unclear, what sources remain seem to indicate that the Emperor had demanded a triumph and had been refused by the Senate. What is clear is that in 39 Caligula removed and replaced the Consuls without consulting the Senate, and publicly humiliated several Senators by forcing them to run alongside his chariot in their full robes. It is from this point on that there is a marked change in the biography of his life; the young man previously hailed as "our star" and "our baby" by the Roman people became a despotic tyrant.

Political achievements

Caligula's reign was short and surviving sources record few of Caligula's political achievements. During his reign, Mauretania was annexed and reorganized into two provinces. Herod Agrippa was appointed governor of Judaea. Several riots took place in Alexandria and other eastern cities between Jews and Greeks that were quelled. Caligula had harbours at Rhegium and Sicily improved and had grain imports from Egypt increased. He had public works completed, temples built and walls repaired. Caligula was also reluctantly described by sources as an excellent speaker, very persuasive and generally popular with the Roman people.

Surviving sources also record few of his political blunders. Those that are highlighted and used as evidence of insanity and tyranny are his military activities on the northern frontier, his religious policy and his tax policy. His northern campaigns are derided, with accounts of Gauls dressed up as Germans at his triumph, and Roman troops ordered to collect sea-shells as "spoils of the sea" and indicative of his victory against Neptune. Numerous theories and suggestions have been put forth to attempt to explain these actions as anything other than those of a mad-man, the most reasonable suggestion being that Caligula went north to invade Britain and win where even Julius Caesar had been forced to retreat. His troops seem to have had a different campaign in mind, and upon arriving at the shores of the English Channel, the troops refused to go further, hence Caligula ordered them to collect sea-shells as their reward for the "campaign" that they refused to embark upon. Once again, however, due to the lack of sources, what precisely occurred and why is a matter of debate even among the primary sources for Caligula's reign.

Caligula's religious policy was a firm departure from the policy of his predecessors. Under Augustus, the Cult of the Deified Emperor had been established and promoted, especially in the western empire, and was generally the first organization established in any new Roman colony. Augustus proclaimed on multiple occasions that he was not himself personally divine; instead the Cult centered around his numen, his personal spirit, and gens, the collective spirit of his family and ancestors. After Augustus, Tiberius seems to have had little interest in the Cult, and its promulgation and expansion seems to have been on a local level and driven by local magistrates, rather than from a central organizational structure. Caligula expanded this Cult on an unprecedented scale. The temple of Castor and Pollux on the Forum was linked directly to the Imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula himself [1] [2]; he would appear here on occasions, dressed and presenting himself as a god, and demanding that those in his presence adopt sycophantic methods of acknowledging him. The nature of the Cult of the Deified Emperor changed from honoring the spirits around the Emperor to direct worship of Caligula himself. Likewise, Caligula's policies affected religious practice in the whole of the Empire, not just those practices associated with the Cult. The heads of the statues of many of the gods throughout Rome and the empire were replaced with Caligula's head, including many of the female statues, and Caligula demanded that he be worshipped as an embodiment of these gods, similar to the Hellenistic ruler-cults.

Caligula's tax policy is also criticized heavily by sources. Caligula attempted to levy tax on law suits, prostitution and marriage.

Eastern policy

Caligula and other Emperors' desire to be worshipped was at odds with Jewish monotheism in the first century. Philo said that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his."^[26]

On his accession in 37, he made his good friend, Herod Agrippa, the governor of territories Batanaea and Trachonitis.

In 38, Caligula ordered the prefect, Aulus Avilius Flaccus, to erect statues of the Emperor in Jewish synagogues. Riots broke out in Alexandria and Flaccus was removed.

In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas, the governor of Galilee and Peres, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was rewarded with his territories and now controlled most of Judea.^[27]

Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40, this time between Jews and Greeks. Jews were accused of not honoring the Emperor.^[28] Also, disputes occurred in the city of Jamnia. Jews were angered by the erection of an altar to Caligula and destroyed it.^[29] Angered, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem.

Fearing civil war if the order were carried out, it was delayed for nearly a year by the governor of Syria, Publius Petronius. Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order.^[30]

Scandals

Outlandish stories cluster about the raving Emperor, illustrating his excessive cruelty, multiple and peculiar sexual escapades (both heterosexual and homosexual, at least as claimed by Suetonius, Cal. 36), or disrespect toward tradition and the Senate. Suetonius ^[4] describes his incestuous relationships with all three of his sisters, his selling to the highest bidder the wives of high-ranking Senate members during sexual orgies, his laughable military campaigns in the north, and his habit of roaming the halls of his palace at night ordering the sun to rise. He also named his horse, Incitatus, as a priest and gave it a house to reside in, complete with a marble stable, golden manger, and jeweled necklaces; and he later spoke of appointing it Consul to the Senate.

He is said to have opened a brothel in his palace and had a habit of taking Senate members' wives with him to his private bedroom during social functions, while the husbands could merely look on as they left together, then he would recount the sexual acts he performed with the wives for all to hear, including their husbands (This seems to spring from a remark he made about the performance in bed by a sister to his third wife, Lollia Paulina, whom he had had a relationship with before he married Lollia. Present at the dinner was the husband of Lollia's sister, Valerius Asiaticus, who conceived a grudge against Caligula and eventually conspired against him.)

He is described as aloof, arrogant, egotistical, and is generally portrayed as insane. He is said to have cried "I wish the Roman people had but a single neck" when an arena crowd applauded a faction he opposed. ^[31] It is also said that when there were not enough convicts to fight lions and tigers in arena, he threw in some spectators. When he found out about one plot on his life, he supposedly ordered the conspirators killed "by numerous small wounds, so they may feel they are dying." Suetonius wrote that he often uttered "Let them hate me, so long as they fear me", and described this as a familiar line of the tragic poet (Accius); however, Suetonius also attributes the utterance of this line to Tiberius.

He declared himself a living god. He had a causeway constructed between the Palatine and the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline (reportedly to allow easy consultation between the two "divinities"), and expanded the imperial palace onto the forum itself and into the temple of Castor and Pollux, where Caligula would appear in the style of various gods and "hold court". He is reportedly responsible for movement of the temple of Jupiter at Olympia to the Capitoline, including the famed statue of Jupiter and the "black stone" of Jupiter. He is also said to have made it a crime to look down on him from above, and not to leave him everything in a will.

Caligula was also said to be incredibly self-indulgent, dramatic proof of which has been found with the discovery of two sunken ships at the bottom of Lake Nemi. These two ships are among the largest vessels in the ancient world. The smaller of the ships was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace that counted marble floors and plumbing among its amenities, the sole role of which was to satisfy Caligula's increasingly hedonistic behavior.

Assassination and aftermath

Caligula's actions as Emperor were described as being especially harsh to the Senate, the nobility and the equestrian order. According to Josephus, these actions led to at least three failed conspiracies against Caligula that were thwarted by the Praetorian Guard.^[32] Eventually, a successful murder was planned by officers within the Praetorian Guard itself led by Cassius Chaerea. The plot is described as having been planned by three men, but many in the Senate, army and equestrian order were said to have been informed of it.^[33]

According to Josephus, Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination.^[34] Suetonius, on the other hand, claims Caligula called Chaerea derogatory names.

According to Suetonius and Josephus, Caligula's praetorian prefect Cassius Chaerea had received a wound, presumably to his groin, in his service to the previous Emperors.^[35] Caligula had often mocked Chaerea for this wound, setting the watchword for the day as "Priapus" (a Roman god of fertility typically depicted with a large erection) or "Venus" whenever Chaerea was on duty. According to Josephus, the reason for the choice of watchword and its association with Chaerea's injury had become "famous over the city".

On January 24, 41, Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula while he was addressing an acting troupe of young men during a series of games and dramatics held for the Divine Augustus. Chaerea requested the watchword from Caligula; Josephus records that it was another slight against Chaerea, though Suetonius states that it was simply "Jupiter". Suetonius records two versions; in the first, Chaerea struck Caligula from behind while he was addressing the boys, and in the second, Chaerea responded to the watchword with "So be it!" and attacked. After the first blow, Caligula cried for help, prompting the other assassins to strike as well; Suetonius records a total of 30 wounds, some through the genitals, and Josephus credits the Praetorian Aquila with having delivered the killing blow. Another assassin sought out and stabbed Caligula's wife Caesonia and killed their infant daughter, Julia Drusilla, by smashing her head against a wall.^[36] By the time Caligula's loyal German guard responded, the Emperor was already dead. The German guard, stricken with grief and rage, responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent senators and bystanders alike.^[37]

The Senate attempted to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic. ^[38] Chaerea attempted to convince the military to support the Senate. ^[39] The military, though, remained loyal to the office of the Emperor. The grieving Roman people assembled and demanded that Caligula's murderers be brought to justice, while Caligula's uncle Claudius was spirited out of the city to a nearby Praetorian camp.^[40] Claudius became Emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian guard and ordered the execution of Chaerea and any other known conspirators involved in the death of Caligula. ^[41]

Explanations

Recent sources are divided in attempting to ascribe a medical reason for Caligula's behavior, citing as possibilities encephalitis, epilepsy or meningitis. Cassius Dio described Caligula having a "brain fever". Suetonius said that Caligula suffered from "falling sickness" and "mental infirmity." Philo of Alexandria reports it was nothing more than a nervous breakdown, as Caligula was not used to the pressures of constant attention after being out of the public eye for most of his life. Rome waited in horror, praying that their beloved Emperor would recover. He became better, but his reign took a sharp turn. The death of Gemellus and of Silanus, Caligula's father-in-law, took place right after Caligula recovered.

The question of whether or not Caligula was insane remains unanswered. Philo, author of Legatio ad Caium ("On Embassy to Caius") and leader of a delegation sent to Caligula to seek relief from persecution by Alexandrian Greeks, claimed that the Emperor was no more than a vicious jokester.

However, given Caligula's unpopularity among the surviving sources, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. In addition to those recounted above, there are many famous stories attesting to his bizarre behavior as Emperor: as a punishment to the Jews for their destruction of an imperial altar in Jamia he wanted to erect a statue of himself in Jerusalem (his good friend Herod Agrippa stopped it), his amusement with shutting down the granaries and starving the citizens, his hobby of watching executions as he ate, and labeling himself a "god". According to Suetonius, he "often sent for men whom he had secretly killed, as though they were still alive, and remarked off-handedly a few days later that they must have committed suicide". Interesting enough, Seneca, contemporary and who after – typical for Seneca – Caligula´s death painted him in the darkest colours, says nothing about Caligula´s rumoured incestuous relations with his sisters, and Seneca should have known since he was on close terms with both surviving sisters of Caligula, Agrippina the younger and Julia Livilla. Regardless of the validity of any of these anecdotes, historians tend to agree that Caligula was extremely unqualified and unprepared to be Emperor.

Alternative views

The lack of a full accounting of Caligula's reign, and the hyperbolic nature of the records that do remain, create several problems for historical analysis. It must be noted that, except for Philo's Embassy to Caius and mention in Josephus' Antiquities of the Jews, Chapters 6 through 8, all historical writings regarding Caligula are authored by Romans of Senatorial rank, a class of individuals whose power had been severely checked by the growth of the Principate. Additionally, in Roman politics sexual perversity was often presented hand in hand with poor government; Suetonius accuses Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero all of sexually perverse behaviour, and also heavily criticizes many of the administrative aspects of these Emperor's rules. Therefore, much of what is recorded about Caligula, especially that coming from Suetonius, must be taken with a grain of salt.

It is known that in 39 there was a political break between Caligula and the Senate, and it is from this point forward that Caligula's reign takes on a decidedly despotic tone. The purges of Tiberius had removed from the Senate some of the staunchest supporters of the Julian line, of which Caligula was a prominent member. Caligula was thus presented with a Senate that, at best, offered half-hearted support. Additionally, the absence of Tiberius for much of his reign meant that the Senate, previously docile after almost 50 years under Augustus, had been forced to take up much of the administrative apparatus of the Empire once again. Caligula was thus faced with an uncooperative Senate that was once again beginning to rule the Empire as it had before Caesar and Augustus.

The position of the Princeps was an elaborate facade that required the most powerful man in Rome to act as if he were nothing more than a concerned citizen and magistrate under the Senate's supervision. Caligula, faced with an uncooperative Senate, seems to have quickly tired of this charade and decided to act indiscriminately with the powers given to him as Princeps. The vast financial reserves that Tiberius had left behind were quickly spent and the imperial treasury emptied by the end of Caligula's brief reign. His reign saw the expansion of the imperial court and imperial palace into the Forum itself. Imperial duties and responsibilities that Tiberius had returned to the Senate were reclaimed as rights of the Princeps, and the powers of the Senate were further restricted. Perhaps modeling his rule after the Hellenistic monarchs, Caligula sought to make himself the center of all religious activity.

In essence, Caligula sought to take the Principate to its next logical step: a divine monarchy. However, the complexities of Roman society and Roman politics demanded that the facade of the "first-citizen" be continued. Suetonius compares Caligula to Julius Caesar; in the mind of the Roman Senate, the delicately balanced Principate had become little more than the tyranny it had rid itself of a century before. Thus, much of the sensational accusations leveled at Caligula could be viewed as politically motivated attacks against his character and his memory. It must be kept in mind that the records that we have of Caligula were all written by his political opponents, those most damaged by his attempt to enforce his absolute authority .

In popular culture

Main article: Caligula in popular culture

See also

Template:Commonscat

• Nemi ships
• Roman Empire
• Gaius Caesar

References

Bibliography

• Caligula: the corruption of power by Anthony A. Barrett (Batsford 1989) ISBN 0-7134-5487-3
• Ludwig Quidde's essay Caligula. Eine Studie über römischen Caesarenwahnsinn (Caligula: A Study of Imperial Insanity) (1894), in which Caligula is likened to the German Emperor Wilhelm II.
• Caligula is the title of a play by Albert Camus, which was the basis for a 1996 Hungarian movie and the 2001 made for TV version.
• Grant, Michael, The Twelve Caesars. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1975
• Hurley, Donna W., An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' "Life of C. Caligula". Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press. 1993.

Primary sources

• Life of Caligula (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
• Cassius Dio, Book 59 (English translation)
• Philo of Alexandria, (trans. C.D.Yonge, London, H. G. Bohn, 1854–1890):
  • On the Embassy to Gaius [3]
  • Flaccus[4]
• Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, (trans. W.Whiston), Books XVIII–XIX
• E.M.Smallwood, Documents Illustrating the Principates of Gaius, Claudius and Nero (Cambridge University Press 1967)
• Suetonius, The Lives of the twelve Caesars: Caius Caligula

Secondary material

• A. Barret, Caligula: The Corruption of Power, (Yale, 1990).
• Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis
• Biography of Gaius Caligula
• Straight Dope article
• Caligula
• A chronological account of his reign
• A critical account of a number of his reported activities
• His genealogical tree
• Caligula at BBC History
• Official Film Site

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