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Race discriminationRacial discrimination differentiates between individuals on the basis of real and perceived racial differences, and has been official government policy in several countries, such as South Africa in the apartheid era. In the United States, racial profiling of minorities by law enforcement officials has been called racial discrimination.[3] As early as 1866, the Civil Rights Act provided a remedy for intentional race discrimination in employment by private employers and state and local public employers. The Civil Rights Act of 1871 applies to public employment or employment involving state action prohibiting deprivation of rights secured by the federal constitution or federal laws through action under color of law. Title VII is the principal federal statute with regard to employment discrimination prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and private employers, labor organizations, training programs and employment agencies based on race or color, religion, sex, and national origin. Title VII also prohibits retaliation against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the statute. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 expanded the damages available in Title VII cases and granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to a jury trial. Title VII also provides that race and color discrimination against every race and color is prohibited, including whites, blacks, hispanics, and Asians. In the UK the inquiry following the murder of Stephen Lawrence accused the police of institutional racism. Age discriminationAge discrimination is discrimination against a person or group on the grounds of age. Although theoretically the word can refer to the discrimination against any age group, age discrimination usually comes in one of three forms: discrimination against youth, which is also called 'adultism'; discrimination against those 40 years old or older [3], and; discrimination against elderly people. In the United States, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act prohibits employment discrimination nationwide based on age with respect to employees 40 years of age or older. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act also addresses the difficulty older workers face in obtaining new employment after being displaced from their jobs, arbitrary age limits. In many countries, companies more or less openly refuse to hire people above a certain age despite the increasing lifespans and average age of the population. The reasons for this range from vague feelings that younger people are more "dynamic" and create a positive image for the company, to more concrete concerns about regulations granting older employees higher salaries or other benefits without these expenses being fully justified by an older employees' greater experience. Some underage teenagers consider that they are victims of age discrimination on the grounds that they should be treated more respectfully by adults and not as second-class citizens. Some complain that social stratification in age groups causes outsiders to incorrectly stereotype and generalize the group, for instance that all adolescents are equally immature, violent or rebellious, listen to rock tunes and do drugs. Some have organized groups against age discrimination. Age – legislation on this issue is forthcoming Ageism is the causal effect of a continuum of fears related to age. This continuum includes:
Related terms include:
Gender discriminationGender discrimination is discrimination against a person or group on the grounds of sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity. Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify societies in which one sex or the other has been restricted to significantly inferior and secondary roles. While there are non-physical differences between men and women, there is little agreement as to what those differences are. Unfair discrimination usually follows the gender stereotyping held by a society. In Western societies while women are often discriminated against in the workplace, men are often discriminated against in the home and family environments. For instance after a divorce women receive primary custody of the children far more often than men, often based on the stereotype of the woman being the housewife and the man being the breadwinner. See Fathers rights. The United Nations had concluded that women often experience a "glass ceiling" and that there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men. The term "glass ceiling" describes the process by which women are barred from promotion by means of an invisible barrier. In the United States, the Glass Ceiling Commission has stated that between 95 and 97 percent of senior managers in the country's biggest corporations are men. [4] Transgendered individuals, both male to female and female to male, often experience problems which often lead to dismissals, underachievement, difficulty in finding a job, social isolation, and, occasionally, violent attacks against them. LegislationLaws to promote gender equality are generally complex and varied, with a wide divergence among different countries and government. In the USA, Title VII of the CRA of 1964 allows a BFOQ for gender (contact prison guards, washroom attendants) but such permission is extremely limited. The Equal Pay Act (part of the Fair Labor Standards Act) prohibits wage discrimination by employers and labor organizations based solely on sex. In the UK, the principal legislation is found in the Equal Pay Act 1970 (which provides for equal pay for comparable work) and the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, which makes discrimination against women or men (including discrimination on the grounds of marital status) illegal in the workplace. The adoption of the Human Rights Act 1998 in 2000 provides more scope for redressing all forms of discriminatory imbalances. Employment DiscriminationIn the USA, discrimination in an employment context is protected against by law, but only against certain protected classes of people. Employment discrimination is not allowed based on one's race or color, national origin, sex or gender, age (if over 40 years old), physical or mental disability, religion and military status. The federal laws that protect against:
Drug discriminationPeople are sometimes discriminated against on the basis of whether they take illegal drugs. The legality and ethics of such discrimination is part of a wider debate on the arguments for and against drug prohibition. (See also drug test). A recent British case involving this form of discrimination is that of Casey William Hardison, who is awaiting a hearing at the European Court of Human Rights after being refused a final appeal at the House of Lords, the highest court in Great Britain. Hardison is currently serving a twenty year sentence for producing a variety of entheogenic drugs. Language discriminationPeople are sometimes subjected to different treatment because their preferred language is associated with a particular group, class or category. Commonly, the preferred language is just another attribute of separate ethnic groups. Reverse discriminationReverse discrimination is a term used to describe discriminatory policies or acts that benefit a historically sociopolitically nondominant group (typically white women and minorities), at the expense of a historically sociopolitically dominant group (typically men and majority races). It is also rather incorrect, as this is simply discrimination and does not require the word "reverse" in front of it. References
Bibliography
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