George W. Bush
From AmericolaWiki
| George Walker Bush | |
| Image:George-W-Bush.jpeg
| |
| | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office January 20 2001 | |
| Vice President(s) | Richard Bruce Cheney |
|---|---|
| Preceded by | William Jefferson Clinton |
| Succeeded by | Incumbent |
| 47th Governor of Texas
| |
| In office January 22 1995 – December 14 2000 | |
| Lieutenant(s) | Bob Bullock, Rick Perry |
| Preceded by | Ann Richards |
| Succeeded by | Rick Perry |
| | |
| Born | July 6 1946 (age 62) New Haven, CT
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| Political party | Republican |
| Spouse | Laura Bush |
| Religion | United Methodist |
| Signature | Image:GeorgeWBush Signature.svg |
George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the 43rd and current President of the United States, inaugurated on January 20, 2001 and re-inaugurated on January 20, 2005.
Bush was elected Governor of Texas in 1994 and served for nearly six years before being elected U.S. President in 2000. Bush was re-elected in 2004[1] after a general election campaign against Senator John Kerry. His term is set to end January 20, 2009.
Eight months into Bush's first presidential term in 2001, the September 11, 2001 attacks on America occurred. In response Bush announced a "war on terror", which would become a central issue of his presidency. In early October 2001, he ordered the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban as part of an attempt to defeat al-Qaeda.[2] In March 2003, Bush ordered the invasion of Iraq, asserting that Iraq was in violation of UN Resolution 1441 regarding weapons of mass destruction.[3][4] Following the invasion of Iraq, Bush started his policy of promoting democracy in the Middle East in Afghanistan and Iraq.[5]
Contents |
[edit] Childhood to mid-life
Born in New Haven, Connecticut, Bush was the first child of George H. W. Bush and his wife Barbara Bush. His paternal ancestors emigrated from Somerset in the West Country of England in the seventeenth century. Bush's parents moved from Connecticut to Texas when he was two years old. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with his four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, and Dorothy. Another younger sister, Robin, died in 1953 at the age of three from leukemia.[6] Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U.S. Senator from Connecticut, and his father served as U.S. President from 1989 to 1993.
Bush attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. Bush played baseball there, but "mostly made his mark as a cheerleader for the teams".[7] Following in his father's footsteps, was accepted into Yale University, where he received a Bachelor of Arts degree in history in 1968. At the same time, he worked in various Republican campaigns, including his father's 1964 and 1970 Senate campaigns in Texas. As a college senior, Bush became a member of the secretive Skull and Bones society. By his own characterization, Bush was an average student.[8]
In May 1968, at the height of the ongoing Vietnam War, Bush was accepted into the Texas Air National Guard. After training, he was assigned to duty in Houston, flying Convair F-102s out of Ellington Air Force Base.[9] Critics have alleged that Bush was favorably treated during his time of service due to his father's political standing, and that he was irregular in attendance. Bush took a transfer to the Alabama Air National Guard in 1972 to work on a Republican senate campaign, and in 1974 he obtained permission to end his six-year service obligation six months early to attend Harvard Business School, receiving an honorable discharge.[10]
There are a number of accounts of substance abuse and otherwise disorderly conduct by Bush from this time. Bush has admitted to drinking "too much" in those years and described this period of his life as his "nomadic" period of "irresponsible youth".[11] On September 4, 1976, at the age of 30, Bush was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol near his family's summer home in Kennebunkport, Maine. He pleaded guilty, was fined $150, and had his driver's license suspended until 1978[12] in Maine.[13]
After obtaining an MBA from Harvard University (Bush is the only U.S. President to serve holding a Master of Business Administration degree[14]), Bush entered the oil industry in Texas. In 1977, he was introduced by friends to Laura Welch, a schoolteacher and librarian. After three months of courting, they married and settled in Midland, Texas. Bush's twin daughters, Jenna and Barbara, were born in 1981. Bush also left his family's Episcopal Church to join his wife's United Methodist Church.[15]
In 1978, Bush ran for the U.S. House of Representatives from the 19th Congressional District of Texas. Facing Kent Hance of the Democratic Party, Bush stressed his energy credentials and conservative values in the campaign. Hance, however, also held many conservative views, opposing gun control and strict regulation; he portrayed Bush as being out of touch with rural Texans. Bush lost by 6,000 votes. Hance later became a Republican and donated money to Bush's campaign for Governor of Texas in 1993.[16]
Bush returned to the oil industry, becoming a senior partner or chief executive officer of several ventures, such as Arbusto Energy,[17] Spectrum 7, and, later, Harken Energy.[18] These ventures suffered from the general decline of oil prices in the 1980s that had affected the industry and the regional economy. Additionally, questions of possible insider trading involving Harken have arisen, though the SEC's investigation of Bush concluded that he did not have enough insider information before his stock sale to warrant a case.[19]
Around 1986, Bush and friends have stated that he became a teetotaler, began studying Christian philosophy, and started participating in church and community study groups. According to Bush, following a personal meeting and exchange with Reverend Billy Graham, he became a born-again Christian.[11]
Bush moved with his family to Washington, D.C. in 1988, to work on his father's campaign for the U.S. presidency.[20] With colleagues Lee Atwater and Doug Wead, he helped to develop and coordinate a political strategy for courting conservative Christians and evangelical voters, who were seen as key to winning the nomination and the election.[21]
Returning to Texas, Bush purchased a share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in April 1989, where he served as managing general partner of the Rangers for five years.[22] One act he would be remembered for during his tenure occurred in 1989, when Bush presided during the trading away of Sammy Sosa who would go on to be a popular and prodigious home run hitter for the Chicago Cubs.[23] Bush actively led the team's projects and regularly attended its games, often choosing to sit in the open stands with fans.[24] The sale of Bush's share in the Texas Rangers brought him over $15 million from his initial $800,000 investment.[25]
Bush is the first president to have run a marathon. Before running for governor of Texas he completed the 1993 Houston Marathon in 3:44:52 for a pace of about 8:36/mile. He had been running since he was 26, and before taking office, ran 15 to 30 miles a week.[26]
Bush is often referred to by the nickname "Dubya", playing on his Southern pronunciation of the letter W, his middle initial.
[edit] Elected positions
[edit] Governor of Texas
With his father's election in 1988, speculation had arisen among Republicans that Bush would enter the 1990 gubernatorial election, but this was offset by Bush's purchase of the Rangers baseball team and personal concerns regarding his own record and profile. Following his success as owner and manager of the Rangers, Bush declared his candidacy for the 1994 election, even as his brother Jeb first sought the governorship of Florida. Winning the Republican primary easily, Bush faced incumbent Governor Ann Richards, a popular Democrat who was considered the easy favorite, given Bush's lack of political credentials.
Bush was aided in his campaign by a close coterie of political advisors that included Karen Hughes, a former journalist who was his communications advisor; John Allbaugh, who became his campaign manager, and Karl Rove, a personal friend and political activist who is believed to have been a strong influence in encouraging Bush to enter the election. Bush's aides crafted a campaign strategy that attacked Governor Richards' record on law enforcement, her political appointments, and her support of liberal political causes. Bush developed a positive image and message with themes of "personal responsibility" and "moral leadership". His campaign focused on issues such as education (seeking more accountability for schools over student performance), crime, deregulation of the economy, and tort reform. The Bush campaign was criticized for allegedly using controversial methods to disparage Richards. Following an impressive performance in the debates, however, Bush's popularity grew. He won with 52 percent against Richards' 47 percent.[27]
As governor, Bush successfully sponsored legislation for tort reform, increased education funding, set higher standards for schools, and reformed the criminal justice system. Under his leadership, Texas executed 152 prisoners, more than under any other governor in modern American history; critics such as Helen Prejean argue that he failed to give serious consideration to clemency requests.[28] Seeking to reduce high property taxes to benefit homeowners while increasing general education funding, Bush sought to create business taxes, but faced vigorous opposition from his own party and the private sector. Failing to obtain political consensus for his proposal, Bush used a budget surplus to push through a $2 billion tax-cut plan, which was the largest in Texas history and cemented Bush's credentials as a pro-business fiscal conservative.[29]
Bush also pioneered faith-based welfare programs by extending government funding and support for religious organizations providing social services such as education, alcohol and drug abuse prevention, and reduction of domestic violence. As governor, he reached out to religious leaders such as Kirbyjon Caldwell (who would later offer the official benediction at Bush's presidential inauguration). He signed a memorandum on April 17, 2000 proclaiming June 10 to be Jesus Day in Texas, a day where he "urge[d] all Texans to answer the call to serve those in need."[30] Although Bush was criticized for violating the constitutional separation of church and state ("Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof…"), his initiative was popular with most people across the state, especially religious and social conservatives.
In 1998, Bush won re-election in a landslide victory with nearly 69 percent of the vote, becoming the first Texas governor to be elected for two consecutive terms since before 1975.[31]. Within a year, he had decided to seek the Republican nomination for the presidency.
[edit] 2000 Presidential candidacy
[edit] Primary
Bush's campaign was managed by Rove, Hughes and Albaugh, as well as by other political associates from Texas. He was endorsed by a majority of Republicans in 38 state legislatures. After winning the Iowa caucus, Bush was handed a surprising defeat by U.S. Senator John McCain of Arizona in the New Hampshire primary. Bush then won the South Carolina primary, severely crippling the momentum McCain had picked up with his win in New Hampshire. McCain countered by winning in Michigan. McCain criticized Pat Robertson and Jerry Falwell just before the Virginia primary, stirring the ire of religious conservatives. Bush went on to win Virginia, and a week later he captured nine of thirteen Super Tuesday state primaries, effectively clinching the Republican nomination.
In the televised Republican presidential debate held in Des Moines, Iowa on December 13 1999, all of the participating candidates were asked "What political philosopher or thinker do you most identify with and why?" Unlike most of the other candidates, who cited former Presidents and other political figures, Bush responded, "Christ, because he changed my heart". Bush's appeal to religious values seems to have aided him in the general election. In a Gallup poll those who said they "attend church weekly" gave him 56% of their vote in 2000 (and 63% of their vote in 2004).[32]During the election cycle, Bush labeled himself a "compassionate conservative", and his political campaign promised to "restore honor and dignity to the White House".[33]
[edit] General election
Bush chose Dick Cheney, a former U.S. Representative and Secretary of Defense, as his Vice Presidential running mate. His campaign was endorsed by prominent Republicans such as Donald Rumsfeld and Colin Powell, who assumed roles as advisers on issues of national security and foreign relations. While stressing his successful record as governor of Texas, Bush's campaign attacked[citation needed] the Democratic nominee, incumbent Vice President Al Gore, over gun control and taxation. Bush criticized the failed Kyoto Protocol, which Gore championed, by citing the decline of the industries in the Midwestern states, such as West Virginia, and resulting economic hardships.
On election day, November 7, 2000, Bush won several key states, including Gore's home state of Tennessee. Based on exit polls, television networks initially called the state of Florida for Gore, then withdrew that projection and later called the state, along with the entire election, for Bush. Sometime after some networks reported that Bush had won Florida, Gore conceded the election, and then rescinded that concession less than one hour later, when it was declared that the results were too close to call. The vote count, which favored Bush in preliminary tallies, was contested over allegations of irregularities in the voting and tabulation processes. Because of Florida state law, a state-wide machine recount was ordered. Although it narrowed the gap, the recount still left Bush in the lead. Eventually, four counties in Florida which had large numbers of presidential undervotes began a manual hand recount of ballots. On December 8, the Florida Supreme Court ruled that every county with a large number of undervotes would perform a hand recount. On December 9, in the Bush v. Gore case, the U.S. Supreme Court, with a 5-4 vote, reversed the Florida Supreme Court ruling and stopped the statewide hand recount. The machine recount showed that Bush had won the Florida vote by a margin of 537 votes out of 6 million cast, making it the 30th state he carried.[34]
Bush received 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266 as a result of the Florida outcome. However, he lost the nationwide popular vote by more than half a million votes,[35] making him the first President elected without a plurality of the popular vote since Benjamin Harrison was elected in 1888.[36][37]
[edit] Cabinet appointments
Bush appointed Andrew Card as his Chief of Staff, Karl Rove as his political advisor and Karen Hughes as White House communications director. He appointed Colin Powell as Secretary of State, Paul O'Neill as Secretary of the Treasury, and Donald Rumsfeld as the Secretary of Defense.[38]
His appointment of former Senator John Ashcroft as Attorney General was intensely criticized by Democrats because of his opposition of abortion and support for conservative causes concerning gay rights and capital punishment.[39] Nevertheless, he was approved and served for four years.
[edit] 2004 Presidential candidacy
Bush commanded broad support in the Republican Party and did not encounter a primary challenge. He appointed Kenneth Mehlman as campaign manager, and the campaign political strategy was devised by Karl Rove.[40] Bush outlined a 2004 agenda that included a strong commitment to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, a renewal of the USA PATRIOT Act, making the 2001 and 2003 tax cuts permanent, cutting the budget deficit in half, promoting education, as well as reform in tort law, Social Security, and national taxes.
The Bush campaign used television and radio advertisements across the U.S. against Democratic candidates, including Bush's emerging opponent, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry. Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the conduct of the war in Iraq, perceived excesses of the USA PATRIOT Act and for allegedly failing to stimulate the economy and job growth, as well as controversies surrounding Bush's service in the National Guard. The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government. The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry's allegedly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq, and claimed Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the war on terrorism. Bush carried 31 of 50 states for a total of 286 Electoral College votes.
In his 2004 victory, Bush was the first presidential candidate to win a majority of the popular vote since his father did so 16 years earlier.[41] In the three previous elections, strong showings by third-party candidates had prevented the candidates who won the popular vote, Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996, and Al Gore in 2000, from winning a popular vote majority, rather than a plurality.[42] Bush also became the first president to ever be re-elected after losing the popular vote 4 years earlier.
[edit] Cabinet appointments
In August 2005, with his nomination of the controversial John Bolton as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations filibustered by the Senate, Bush installed him with a recess appointment. Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid criticized this action as an abuse of presidential power.[43]
In 2006, Bush replaced long-time chief of staff Andrew Card with Joshua Bolten and undertook major staff and cabinet changes with the stated intention of revitalizing his Administration.[44]
The day after the midterm elections, on November 8, 2006, Bush announced plans to replace Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld with former CIA Director Robert Gates. Gates was confirmed by the Senate on December 6 and took office as the 22nd Secretary of Defense on December 18.[45]
[edit] Presidency
[edit] Domestic policy
[edit] Economic policy
Facing opposition in Congress, Bush held town hall-style public meetings across the U.S. in 2001 to increase public support for his plan for a $1.3 trillion tax cut. Bush and his economic advisers argued that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers. With reports of the threat of recession from Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, Bush argued that such a tax cut would stimulate the economy and create jobs. In the end, five Senate Democrats crossed party lines to join Republicans in approving Bush's $1.35 trillion[46] tax cut program — one of the largest in U.S. history.
Under the Bush Administration, unemployment peaked at a high of 6.2% in June 2003, and is currently at a low of 4.4%. The economy has remained strong, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average setting several record highs and the GDP experiencing healthy growth.[47][48] Critics argue that the economy, however strong, is only benefiting the wealthy, and not the majority of middle and lower-class citizens.[49][50]
The effect of Bush's tax cuts on the upper, middle and lower class is contentious, with some observers arguing that the cuts have benefited the nation's most wealthy households at the expense of the middle and lower class,[51] while others have claimed the exact opposite.[52]
[edit] Education and health
The No Child Left Behind Act aimed to close the achievement gap, measure student performance, provide options to parents with students in low-performing schools, and target more federal funding to low-income schools. Critics argue that Bush has underfunded his own program, and Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy has claimed: "The tragedy is that these long overdue reforms are finally in place, but the funds are not."[53] Many educational experts are critical of the reforms in question, claiming that NCLB allows some students to flee failing public schools instead of improving those schools.[54] Others contend that NCLBA's focus on "high stakes testing" and quantitative outcomes is counterproductive.[55] Bush increased funding for the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in his first years of office, and created education programs to strengthen the grounding in science and mathematics for American high school students. However, funding for NIH failed to keep up with inflation in 2004 and 2005, and was actually cut in 2006, the first such cut in 36 years.[56]
[edit] Social services and Social Security
Bush promoted increased de-regulation and investment options in social services, leading Republican efforts to pass the Medicare Act of 2003, which added prescription drug coverage to Medicare and created Health Savings Accounts, which would permit people to set aside a portion of their Medicare tax to build a "nest egg". The retired persons lobby group AARP worked with the Bush Administration on the program and gave their endorsement. Bush said the law, estimated to cost $400 billion over the first 10 years, would give the elderly "better choices and more control over their health care".[57]
President Bush began his second term by outlining a major initiative to reform Social Security, which was facing record deficit projections beginning in 2005. Bush made it the centerpiece of his agenda despite contrary beliefs in the media and in the U.S. Congress, which saw the program as the "third rail of politics," with the American public being suspicious of any attempt to change it. It was also widely believed to be the province of the Democratic Party, with Republicans in the past having been accused of efforts to dismantle or privatize it. In his 2005 State of the Union address, Bush discussed the allegedly impending bankruptcy of the program and attacked political inertia against reform. He proposed options to permit Americans to divert a portion of their Social Security tax (FICA) into secured investments, creating a "nest egg" that he claimed would enjoy steady growth. Despite emphasizing safeguards and remaining open to other plans, Bush's proposal was criticized for its high cost, and Democrats attacked it as an effort to partially privatize the system, and for leaving Americans open to the whims of the market. Bush embarked on a 60-day national tour, campaigning vigorously for his initiative in media events ("Conversations on Social Security") in a largely unsuccessful attempt to gain support from the general public.[58] According to at least one poll, Bush failed to convince the public that the Social Security program was in crisis.[59]
[edit] Environmental policy and global warming
- Main article: Environment from Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration
Upon arriving in office in 2001, President Bush withdrew United States support of the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change seeking to impose mandatory targets for reducing "greenhouse gas" emissions - carbon dioxide emitted in the burning of fossil fuels. Bush asserted that uncertainties existed in the climate change science regarding the degree to which human activity is the cause and cited concerns regarding the treaty's impact on U.S. industry and economy and the fact that China and India had not yet agreed.[60] The Bush Administration's stance on global warming, has remained controversial in the scientific and environmental communities during his presidency. In 2004, the Director of NASA's Goddard Institute, James Hansen, publicly and harshly accused the Administration of misinforming the public by suppressing the scientific evidence of the dangers of greenhouse gases, saying the Bush Administration wanted to hear only scientific results that “fit predetermined, inflexible positions” and edited reports to make the dangers sound less threatening in what he asserted was "direct opposition to the most fundamental precepts of science."[61][62] President Bush had said that he has consistently noted that global warming is a serious problem but asserted there is a "debate over whether it's manmade or naturally caused" and maintained that regardless of that debate his administration was working on plans to make America less dependent on foreign oil "for economic and national security reasons."[63] In his 2007 State of the Union Address, President Bush renewed his pledge to work toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel consumption and increasing alternative fuel production.[64]
In 2002, President Bush announced[65] the Clear Skies Initiative, aimed at amending the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through the use of emissions trading programs. Critics contended that it would have weakened the original legislation by allowing higher levels of pollutants than were permitted at that time.[66] The initiative was introduced to Congress, but failed to make it out of committee.
In 2006, Bush declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national monument, creating the largest marine reserve to date. It comprises 84 million acres and is home to 7,000 species of fish, birds and other marine animals, many of which are specific to only those islands.[67] The move was hailed by conservationists for "its foresight and leadership in protecting this incredible area."[68]
[edit] Stem cell research and first use of veto power
Federal funding for medical research involving the creation or destruction of human embryos through the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health has been forbidden by law since the Republican Revolution of 1995.[69] Bush has asserted that he supports limited stem cell research, but only to the extent that human embryos are not destroyed in order to harvest additional stem cells.[70] On August 9 2001, Bush signed an executive order lifting the ban on federal funding for the 71[71] existing "lines" of stem cells, but the ability of these existing lines to provide an adequate medium for testing has been questioned. Testing can only be done on 12 of the original lines, and there are fears that even these lines are corrupted.[72]
On July 19 2006, President Bush used his veto power for the first time in his presidency to veto the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act, a bill that would have reversed the Dickey Amendment, permitting federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo.[73]
[edit] Immigration
In 2006, Bush somewhat shifted focus to re-emphasize immediate and comprehensive immigration reform. Going beyond calls from Republicans and conservatives to secure the border, Bush demanded that Congress create a "temporary guest-worker program" to allow more than 12 million illegal immigrants to obtain legal status. Bush continues to argue that the lack of legal status denies the protections of U.S. laws to millions of people who face dangers of poverty and exploitation, and penalizes employers despite a demand for immigrant labor. On May 15, 2006, Bush proposed expanding "Basic Pilot," an online system to allow employers to easily confirm the eligibility of new hires; creating a new identification card for all foreign workers; and increasing penalties for businesses that violate immigration laws. Bush urged Congress to provide additional funding for border security, and committed to deploying 6,000 National Guard troops to the United States-Mexico border.[74]
[edit] Justice
On August 17, 2006, a U.S. district court judge in Detroit ruled that warrantless and otherwise congressionally unauthorized eavesdropping on telephone calls under the Terrorist Surveillance Program was unconstitutional. The judge agreed to place her ruling on hold pending an appeal.[75]
On August 28, 2006, Congress approved a bill that made the detainee interrogation program legal.[76] The bill was in response to the Supreme Court's decision in June that the program is illegal.[76] It was the second time Bush tried to approve it through Congress.[76] Bush signed the bill into law on October 17, 2006 as the Military Commissions Act of 2006.
[edit] September 11, 2001
On August 6, 2001, a Presidential Daily Briefing(PDB) entitled "Bin Laden determined to Attack inside United States" was presented to President Bush. http://www.cnn.com/2004/ALLPOLITICS/04/10/august6.memo/ A month later, eight months into George W. Bush's presidency, nineteen hijackers (fifteen from Saudi Arabia, two from the UAE and one each from Egypt and Lebanon) sponsored by the Al-Qaeda group headed by Osama bin Laden carried out terrorist attacks in which they commandeered commercial aircraft, flying two into the two World Trade Center Towers in New York city, one into the Pentagon, and one, apparently headed toward Washington, D.C., into a field in Pennsylvania, after passengers forced a crash-landing. Nearly 3,000 people were killed in the events on what became known as 9/11, most in the collapse of the two World Trade Center towers.
The September 11 terrorist attacks were a major turning point in Bush's presidency. That evening, he addressed the U.S. from the Oval Office, promising a strong response to the attacks but emphasizing the need for the nation to come together and comfort the families of the victims. On September 14, he visited the World Trade Center site, meeting with Mayor Rudy Giuliani and firefighters, police officers and volunteers. Bush addressed the gathering via megaphone while standing on a heap of rubble:
| “ | I can hear you. The rest of the world hears you. And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon. | ” |
In a September 20 2001 speech, President Bush condemned Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda, and issued the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, where bin Laden was operating, an ultimatum to "hand over the terrorists, or … share in their fate."[77] President Bush declared a global War on Terrorism, and after the Afghan Taliban regime was not forthcoming with Osama bin Laden, he ordered the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban regime.[78]
[edit] Hurricane Katrina
One of the worst natural disasters in U.S. history, Hurricane Katrina, struck early in Bush’s second term. Katrina was the sixth-strongest Atlantic hurricane ever recorded and the third-strongest landfalling U.S. hurricane on record. Katrina formed in late August during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and devastated much of the north-central Gulf Coast of the United States, particularly New Orleans.[79]
President Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana on August 27,[80] and in Mississippi[81] and Alabama[82] on August 28; he authorized DHS and FEMA to manage the disaster, but his announcement failed to spur these agencies to action.[83] The eye of the hurricane made landfall on August 29, and New Orleans started to flood due to levee breaches; later that day, Bush declared that a major disaster existed in Louisiana,[84] officially authorizing FEMA to start using federal funds to help with the recovery effort. On August 30, Department of Homeland Security secretary Michael Chertoff declared it "an incident of national significance,"[85] triggering the first use of the newly created National Response Plan. Several days later, on September 2, National Guard troops first entered the city of New Orleans.[86] The same day, President Bush toured parts of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama and declared that the success of the recovery effort up to that point was "not enough."[87] Due to mounting criticism as the disaster in New Orleans intensified during the days of inaction, President Bush claimed full responsibility for the failures on the part of the federal government in its response to the hurricane.[86]
Both local and federal governments were vehemently criticized for their response to Katrina, which was considered insufficient and disorganized. Criticisms of Bush focused on three main issues. First, leaders from both parties attacked the president for having appointed incompetent leaders to positions of power at FEMA, most notably Michael D. Brown.[88] Second, many people argued that the inadequacy of the federal response was the result of the Iraq War and the demands it placed on the armed forces and the federal budget.[89] Third, in the days immediately following the disaster, President Bush denied having received warnings about the possibility of floodwaters breaching the levees protecting New Orleans.[90] However, the presidential videoconference briefing of August 28 shows Max Mayfield warning the President that overflowing the levees was "obviously a very, very grave concern."[91] Critics claimed that the President was misrepresenting his administration's role in what they saw as a flawed response.
[edit] Foreign policy
The Bush Administration's foreign policy is largely seen as dominated by its declaration of a global "War on Terror" and the Iraq War. The War on Terror, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the Administration's dealings with North Korea are addressed individually in subsections below.
The Bush administration withdrew U.S. support for several international agreements, including the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) with Russia. It pursued a national missile defense which was previously barred by the ABM treaty and was never ratified by Congress.[92] Bush also expressed U.S. support for the defense of Taiwan following the stand-off in April 2001 with the People's Republic of China over the crash between an EP-3E American spyplane and a Chinese air force jet, leading to the detention of U.S. personnel. In 2003-04, Bush authorized U.S. military intervention in Haiti and Liberia to protect U.S. interests.
Bush emphasized a "hands-off" approach to the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians in wake of rising violence and the alleged failure of the Clinton Administration's efforts to negotiate. Bush denounced Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat for his support of the violence and militant groups. But prompted by European leaders, he became the first American President to embrace a two-state solution in which an independent Palestine would exist side-by-side with Israel. Bush sponsored dialogs between Prime Ministers Ariel Sharon and Mahmoud Abbas but continued his boycott of Arafat. Bush also supported Sharon's unilateral disengagement plan, and lauded the democratic elections held in Palestine following Arafat's death.
In his State of the Union Address in January 2003, Bush outlined a five-year strategy for global emergency AIDS relief, the President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief. Bush announced $15 billion for this effort—$3 billion per year for five years—but requested less in annual budgets, though some members of Congress added amendments to increase the requested amounts. The emergency relief effort was led by U.S. Ambassador Randall L. Tobias, former CEO of Eli Lilly and Global AIDS Coordinator at the Department of State. At the time of the speech, $9 billion was earmarked for new programs in AIDS relief for the 15 countries most affected by HIV/AIDS, another $5 billion for continuing support of AIDS relief in 100 countries where the U.S. already had bilateral programs established, and an additional $1 billion towards the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria.[93] This budget represented more money contributed to fight AIDS globally than all other donor countries combined.
Bush condemned the attacks by militia forces on the people of Darfur, and denounced the killings in Sudan as genocide.[94] Bush said that an international peacekeeping presence was critical in Darfur, but opposed referring the situation to the International Criminal Court.
Bush began his second term with an emphasis on improving strained relations with European nations. He appointed long-time advisor Karen Hughes to oversee a global public relations campaign to improve the image of the U.S. and significantly increased development aid to countries with a focus on encouraging democracy and human rights. Bush strongly lauded the pro-democracy struggles in Georgia and Ukraine and the election of Mahmoud Abbas as president of the Palestinian Authority. He led international pressure against Syria to withdraw troops from Lebanon. In March 2006, Bush visited India, leading to renewed ties between the two countries, particularly in areas of nuclear energy and counterterrorism cooperation.[95] Bilateral relations between the USA and Germany and Canada on the other also improved following the election of conservative governments in those countries. However, midway through Bush's second term, many analysts observed a retreat from his freedom and democracy agenda, highlighted in policy changes toward some oil-rich former Soviet republics in central Asia.[96]
Nursultan Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan and Ilham Aliyev of Azerbaijan, both undemocratically elected and fiercely autocratic, received official state visits to the White House,[97] along with increased economic and military assistance.[98] The President had encouraged both leaders to hold free and fair elections early on in his second term, but in fact neither leader carried out significant reforms.[99][100][101] The democratic election of the Hamas organization in the parliamentary elections of the Palestinian Territories, along with democratic gains in legislatures for the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt and Hezbollah in Lebanon, all of whom are seen as terrorist organizations by the United States, also contributed to a far less aggressive approach to democratic reform world-wide from the Bush administration. Reports in late 2006 suggested that pro-democracy groups across the Middle East had become "pessimistic about the prospects for meaningful reform."[102]
[edit] War on Terror
After the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States by the al Qaeda organization of Osama bin Laden and the invasion of Afganistan in response, President Bush discussed a global War on Terror in his January 29 2002 State of the Union address most remembered for his assertion that an "axis of evil", an alliance between terrorists and states like North Korea, Iran and Iraq, was "arming to threaten the peace of the world" and "pose[d] a grave and growing danger".[103]
[edit] Afghanistan
On October 7 2001, U.S. and British forces initiated bombing campaigns that led to the November 13 arrival of Northern Alliance troops in Kabul. By December 2001, the UN had organized both the Bonn agreement, which installed the Afghan Interim Authority chaired by Hamid Karzai, and the ISAF, a multinational fighting force whose numbers and territory have since steadily increased.[112][113] However, efforts to kill or capture al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden, in President Bush's words, "dead or alive",[114] failed as he escaped a battle in December 2001 in the mountainous region of Tora Bora, which escape the Bush Administration later acknowledged resulted from a failure to commit enough U.S. ground troops.[115] Bin Laden and al Qaeda's number two leader, Ayman al-Zawahiri, as well as the Afghan leader of the Taliban, Mohammed Omar, remained at large as of January 2007.
Despite the initial success in driving the Taliban from power in Kabul, the war continued as by early 2003 the Taliban was regrouping, amassing new funds and recruits.[116] Frustrating the government of Afghan President Karzai and the NATO and U.S. forces, as late as 2006 the Taliban insurgency appeared larger, fiercer, and better organized than expected, with large-scale allied offensives such as the Operation Mountain Thrust attaining limited success.[117][118][119]
As of 2005, NATO had been given control over western and southern parts of the country, and in September 2006, NATO agreed to assume control over operations throughout Afghanistan after the United States pledged to assign 12,000 troops to the force under NATO command, while keeping another 10,000 special operations and other troops operating under U.S. command throught the country.[120][121][122] In an address to the United Nations that month, President Bush pledged the United States' continuing support for the war against the Taliban: "We'll help you defeat these enemies and build a free Afghanistan that will never again oppress you, or be a safe haven for terrorists."[123] As of October 2006, foreign troops in the region numbered more than 41,000.[124]
[edit] Iraq
Beginning with his January 29, 2002 State of the Union address, President Bush began publicly focusing attention on Iraq, which he labelled as part of an "axis of evil" allied with terrorists and posing "a grave and growing danger" to U.S. interests through possession of "weapons of mass destruction".[125] In the latter half of 2002, Central Intelligence Agency reports requested by the Administration contained assertions that Saddam Hussein was intent on reconstituting nuclear weapons programs, had not properly accounted for Iraqi biological weapons and chemical weapons material in violation of UN sanctions, and that some Iraqi missiles had a range greater than allowed by the UN sanctions.[126] In particular, the CIA drew together an October 1 2002 National Intelligence Estimate on Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction, pulling together the intelligence, estimations, opinions and judgments of 16 different U.S. intelligence services, including dissenting views or challenges to various assertions. Several versions of this report were or have been produced with varying levels of declassification, inclusion of dissenting opinions, and completeness.[127] President Bush received a one-page summary of the National Intelligence Estimate.[128] The question of whether the Bush Administration manipulated or exaggerated the threat and evidence of Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction capabilities or attempted to create a tie between Sadaam Hussein and the al Qaeda terrorists who carried out the September 11, 2001 attacks would eventually become a major point of criticism and controversy for the President.[129]
In late 2002 and early 2003, President Bush urged the United Nations to enforce Iraqi disarmament mandates, precipitating a diplomatic crisis. On November 13 2002, under UN Security Council Resolution 1441, Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei led UN weapons inspectors in Iraq. There was controversy over the efficacy of inspections and lapses in Iraqi compliance. UN inspection teams departed Iraq upon U.S. advisement given four days prior to the U.S. invasion, despite their requests for more time to complete their tasks.[130] The U.S. initially sought a UN Security Council resolution authorizing the use of military force pursuant to Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter.[131] Upon facing vigorous opposition from several nations (primarily France and Germany), however, the U.S. dropped the bid for UN approval and began to prepare for war; Benjamin Ferencz, a former chief prosecutor of the Nuremberg Trials argued that for these actions Bush, with his Administration, could be prosecuted for war crimes.[132] Kofi Annan, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, as well as leaders of several nations made similar statements, implying that the attack constitutes a war crime.[133]
In order to comply with the 2002 Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution by Congress, on March 18 2003, President Bush certified to Congress that he had "determined that: (1) reliance by the United States on further diplomatic and other peaceful means alone will neither (A) adequately protect the national security of the United States against the continuing threat posed by Iraq nor (B) likely lead to enforcement of all relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq; and (2) acting pursuant to the Constitution and Public Law 107-243 is consistent with the United States and other countries continuing to take the necessary actions against international terrorists and terrorist organizations, including those nations, organizations, or persons who planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001."[134]
The war effort was joined by more than 20 other nations (most notably the United Kingdom and Australia) who the Bush Administrartion designated the "coalition of the willing".[135] The invasion of Iraq commenced on March 20, 2003, ostensibly to pre-empt Iraqi WMD deployment and remove Saddam from power. The Iraqi military was quickly defeated. The capital, Baghdad, fell on April 9, 2003. On May 1, 2003, President Bush declared the end of major combat operations in Iraq in a speech from the deck of the USS Abraham Lincoln. This speech would become known as his "Mission Accomplished" speech due to a banner with that slogan in view overhead. At the outset of the speech, President Bush stated: "Major combat operations in Iraq have ended. In the Battle of Iraq, the United States and our allies have prevailed. And now our coalition is engaged in securing and reconstructing that country. In this battle, we have fought for the cause of liberty, and for the peace of the world."[136]
The initial success of U.S. operations had increased President Bush's popularity, but the U.S. and allied forces faced a growing insurgency led by sectarian groups. As the situation deteriorated, Bush's May 1 2003 "Mission Accomplished" speech would be criticized as premature."[137] The Bush Administration was also criticisized in subsequent months following the report of the Iraq Survey Group, which did not find the large quantities of weapons that the regime was believed to possess. On December 14, 2005, while discussing the WMD issue, Bush stated that "It is true that much of the intelligence turned out to be wrong."[138] Bush nevertheless continued to assert the war had been worthwhile and confirmed he would have made the same decision if he had known more.
The Plame affair concerned allegations that U.S. government officials revealed classified employment information about Valerie E. Wilson (née Valerie Elise Plame; also known as "Valerie Plame") indicating that she was a covert operative of the United States CIA investigating the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Mrs. Wilson's husband, former ambassador Joseph Wilson, alleges that members of the George W. Bush administration leaked his wife's covert identity to the press as "political retribution" for his criticizing the administration in his New York Times Op-Ed piece published on 6 July, 2003. Wilson's allegations have led to a federal grand jury investigation and subsequent conviction on perjury and obstruction of justice charges against I. Lewis "Scooter" Libby, Jr., a civil suit by the Wilsons